Table of contents :

• morphogenesis
• vasculogenesis : the differentiation of mesodermal progenitor cells (vasofactive or vasoformative cell / angioblast) to endothelial cells and their organization into a primitive network. the process of formation of a vascular bed. TIE1 and TIE2 receptor tyrosine kinases have essential roles in vascular development and maintenance.
• in embryo
• coalescence into Pander's islands : reddish yellow cords-like structures of corpuscular matter in the splanchnopleure of the embryo which develop into blood and blood vessels
• vascular tubulogenesis to form vessels with a central lumen : an endothelial cell-derived secreted factor, EGF-like domain 7 (Egfl7) is expressed at high levels in the vasculature associated with tissue proliferation, and is downregulated in most of the mature vessels in normal adult tissues. Loss of Egfl7 function in zebrafish embryos specifically blocks vascular tubulogenesis. Gradual separation and proper spatial arrangement of the angioblasts allow subsequent assembly of vascular tubes. Evidence dating back > 100 years has hinted at an important function for endothelial vacuoles in lumen formation. > 25 years ago, in some of the first endothelial cell culture experiments in vitro, Folkman and Haudenschild described "longitudinal vacuoles" that "appeared to be extruded and connected from one cell to the next", observations confirmed and extended by later studies in vitro showing that intracellular vacuoles arise from integrin-dependent and cdc42/Rac1-dependent pinocytic events downstream of integrin–ECM signalling interactions. Despite compelling data supporting a model for the assembly of endothelial tubes in vitro through the formation and fusion of vacuoles, conclusive evidence in vivo has been lacking, primarily because of difficulties associated with imaging the dynamics of subcellular endothelial vacuoles deep within living animals. High-resolution time-lapse 2-photon imaging of transgenic zebrafish was used to examine how endothelial tubes assemble in vivo, comparing our results with time-lapse imaging of human endothelial-cell tube formation in 3D collagen matrices in vitro. These results provide strong support for a model in which the formation and intracellular and intercellular fusion of endothelial vacuoles drives vascular lumen formation^ref
• in adults, from coalescence of circulating and marrow-derived precursors
• angiogenesis : the subsequent process that establishes a vascular network through sprouting / branching, intussusception and bridging of endothelial cells and new capillaries from pre-existing networks in the embryo.
• neoangiogenesis : sprouting or remodeling of estabilished vessel structures to form new one
• tumor neoangiogenesis
• infusion of endothelial progenitor cells (EPC), but not of mature endothelial cells, promotes neovascularization after ischemia. Notably, the protease cathepsin L (CathL) is highly expressed in EPC as opposed to endothelial cells and was essential for matrix degradation and invasion by EPC in vitro. CathL-deficient mice show impaired functional recovery following hind limb ischemia, supporting the concept of a crucial role for CathL in postnatal neovascularization. Infused CathL-deficient progenitor cells neither homed to sites of ischemia nor augmented neovascularization. Forced expression of CathL in mature endothelial cells considerably enhanced their invasive activity and sufficed to confer their capacity for neovascularization in vivo^ref.
• blood vessels and nerve fibres course throughout the body in an orderly pattern, often alongside one another. Although superficially distinct, the mechanisms involved in wiring neural and vascular networks seem to share some deep similarities. The discovery of key axon guidance molecules over the past decade has shown that axons are guided to their targets by finely tuned codes of attractive and repulsive cues, and recent studies reveal that these cues also help blood vessels to navigate to their targets. Parallels have also emerged between the actions of growth factors that direct angiogenic sprouting and those that regulate axon terminal arborization^ref
• vascular bud : an outgrowth of an existing vessel from which a new blood vessel arises.
• endogenous activators of angiogenesis
• VEGF-A_{121, 165, 189 or 206} : bone marrow mononuclear cells are recruited to the sites of VEGF-induced neovascularization but are not incorporated into the newly formed vessels^ref. Injection into the left lateral cerebral ventricle of the Mongolian gerbil of an AAV vector capable of expressing the 165-amino-acid isoform of VEGF (VEGF₁₆₅) induces EPO expression in the hippocampal pyramidal layers and in the frontal cortex of the gerbil, particularly after the 18th day following treatment with the vector, which suggests that VEGF₁₆₅ could act as a hypoxic-like signal for EPO production^ref
• an integrin-binding protein initially described in milk-fat globule, MFG-E8 / lactadherin, is expressed in and around blood vessels and has a crucial role in VEGF-dependent neovascularization in the adult mouse. Using neutralizing antibodies and lactadherin-deficient animals, we show that lactadherin interacts with a_vb₃ and a_vb₅ integrins and alters both VEGF-dependent Akt phosphorylation and neovascularization. In the absence of VEGF, lactadherin administration induced a_vb₃- and a_vb₅-dependent Akt phosphorylation in endothelial cells in vitro and strongly improved postischemic neovascularization in vivo. These results show a crucial role for lactadherin in VEGF-dependent neovascularization and identify lactadherin as an important target for the modulation of neovascularization^ref.
• leptin
• Raf-1 is a pivotal regulator of endothelial cell survival during angiogenesis : bFGF / FGF2 activates Raf-1 via p21-activated protein kinase 1 (PAK-1) phosphorylation of serines 338 and 339, resulting endothelial cell protection from the intrinsic (stress) pathway of apoptosis. VEGF-A₁₂₁ activates Raf-1 via c-Src kinase (CSK), leading to phosphorylation of tyrosines 340 and 341 and MEK1-dependent protection from extrinsic (receptor)-mediated apoptosis. WAVE2 / WASF2 is essential for angiogenesis (actin reorganization in isolated endothelial cells lacking WAVE2 was defective, as revealed by the decreased formation of movement-generating lamellipodia and membrane ruffles in response to vascular endothelial growth factor as compared with wildtype cells).
• endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) expressed by bone marrow stromal cells is essential for VEGF-induced mobilization of endothelial progenitor cells (EPC). Regeneration processes are impaired in ischemic heart disease patients, who are characterized by a reduced systemic NO bioactivity.
• metalloproteinases
• aquaporin-1^ref
• endogenous inhibitors of angiogenesis are normally produced by avascularized tissues (e.g. cartilage)
• tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs)
• TGF-b : CCL-2 / MCP-1 mediates the angiogenic effect of TGF- by recruiting vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) and mesenchymal cells towards endothelial cells^ref
• IFN-a
• IL-12
• protamine 1
• protamine 2
• protamine 3
• brain-specific angiogenesis inhibitor 1 (BAI1)
• brain-specific angiogenesis inhibitor 2 (BAI2)
• brain-specific angiogenesis inhibitor 3 (BAI3)
• angiostatin : a 38-kDa internal fragment of plasminogen that spans the first 4 of 5 kringle domains,  generated by cleavage of plasminogen by a macrophage-derived metalloelastase or other MMPs. Angiostatin can inhibit bFGF-induced endothelial cell proliferation. It has been demonstrated that other fragments of plasminogen, such as the first 3 kringle (K1-3) domains and kringle 5 (K5) exhibit potent inhibitory activities on endothelial cell proliferation. Mutant plasminogen with a furin cleavage consensus sequence (-ArgXLys/ArgArg) between K3 and K4 has been used.
• 16-kDa N-terminal fragment of prolactin (PRL)
• vasostatin : the N-terminal domain of mobilferrin / calreticulin (chromogranin A ?) inclusive of amino acids 1-180.
• fibulin-5 is a secreted, extracellular matrix protein containing an Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) motif and calcium-binding EGF-like domains. It promotes adhesion of endothelial cells through interaction of integrins and the RGD motif. It is prominently expressed in developing arteries but less so in adult vessels. However, its expression is reinduced in balloon-injured vessels and atherosclerotic lesions, notably in intimal vascular smooth muscle cells and endothelial cells. It interferes with signaling by the proangiogenic factor VEGF, and increases levels of the antiangiogenic factor thrombospondin-1
• kringle-2 domain from prothrombin
• thrombospondin-1
• basement-membrane-derived
• endostatin : a 20 kDa COOH-terminal fragment (NC1 domain) of a₁ chain of collagen type XVIII inhibits the catalytic activities of both MMP-2 and membrane-type 1 MMP (MT1-MMP)
• mouse endostatin inhibits EC proliferation, migration, apoptosis and tumour. Its receptors are cell-surface proteoglycans, VEGFR2 and a₅b₁ integrin
• human endostatin inhibits tumour and EC migration and apoptosis but not proliferation. Its receptors are a₅b₁ integrin and tropomyosin
• human endostatin-like protein : a₁ chain of type XV collagen (NC10 domain) inhibits EC proliferation and migration (data on apoptosis are not available yet), and tumor. Its receptor is unknown
• arrestin : a₁ chain of collagen type IV (NC1 domain), one of the components of vascular basement membranes, inhibits EC proliferation, migration, apoptosis and tumour. Its receptor is a₁b₁ integrin
• canstatin : a₂ chain of collagen type IV (NC1 domain), one of the components of vascular basement membranes, inhibits EC proliferation, migration, apoptosis and tumour. Its receptor is unknown
• tumstatin is generated by MMP-9 proteolysis of the a₃ chain of collagen type IV (NC1 domain), one of the components of vascular basement membranes, which binds to a_vb₃ integrin expressed by tumour-associated blood vessels (b₃ integrin is primarily expressed by blood vessels that are associated with large tumours (500 mm³ or greater) and inhibits tumour and EC proliferation and apoptosis, but not migration; instead blood vessels that are associated with healing wounds express only the b₁ integrin and are tumstatin-insensitive)
• a₆(IV)NC1 domain : a₆ chain of collagen type IV (NC1 domain), one of the components of vascular basement membranes, inhibits EC proliferation (data not available on migration and apoptosis and tumour). Its receptor is unknown.
• Down syndrome critical region 1 (DSCR-1)
CD151 modulates molecular organization of laminin-binding integrins, thereby supporting secondary (i.e. post-cell adhesion) functions of endothelial cells, which are needed for some types of pathological angiogenesis in vivo^ref. The histone lysine methyltransferase MLL regulates endothelial cell migration via HoxA9 and EphB4, whereas sprout formation requires MLL-dependent signals beyond HoxA9 and HoxD3^ref.
Web resources
• The Virtual Library - Angiogenesis
• Mathematical Models of Angiogenesis by Sandy Anderson and Mark Chaplain
• Angiogenesis at COPE
• Associations :
• Angiogenesis Foundation
• neovascularization : new blood vessel formation in abnormal tissue or in abnormal positions
• differentiated cell types : the current model of arterial-venous identity proposes that binding of VEGF to its heterodimeric receptor—VEGFR2 / Flk1 and neuropilin 1 (NP-1 / Nrp1)—activates the Notch signalling pathway in the endothelium, causing induction of ephrin B2 expression and suppression of ephrin receptor B4 expression to establish arterial identity. Little is known about vein identity except that it involves  ephrin receptor B4expression, because Notch signalling is not activated in veins; an unresolved question is how vein identity is regulated. COUP-TFII / Nr2f2, a member of the orphan nuclear receptor superfamily, is specifically expressed in venous but not arterial endothelium. Ablation of COUP-TFII in endothelial cells enables veins to acquire arterial characteristics, including the expression of arterial markers NP-1 and Notch signalling molecules, and the generation of haematopoietic cell clusters. Furthermore, ectopic expression of COUP-TFII in endothelial cells results in the fusion of veins and arteries in transgenic mouse embryos. Thus, COUP-TFII has a critical role in repressing Notch signalling to maintain vein identity, which suggests that vein identity is under genetic control and is not derived by a default pathway^ref.


• endothelial cells (EC) of blood vessels are CD31⁺34⁺36 / thrombospondin receptor / p95^{gpIV / gpIIIb+}38^-46⁺47⁺48⁺58⁺59⁺138^-141 / thrombomodulin⁺143 / angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) / kininase II^{+ (preferential expression in lung capillaries)}144⁺146⁺ UEA-1 lectin⁺, vWF⁺, VEGFR-2⁺, B₂⁺
• fenestrated endothelial cell
• continue endothelial cell
• splenic endothelial cell
• littoral cells / rod or stave cells : flattened cells lining the walls of lymph or blood sinuses
They divide every 2 months on average. They contain ...
• Weibel-Palade bodies (WPB) / rod-shaped tubulated bodies : rod-shaped intracytoplasmic bundles of microtubules, believed derived from the Golgi complex, and acting as storages for vWF with procoagulant functions as for a-granules of platelets; they are specific for vascular endothelial cells and are used as markers for benign or malignant endothelial cell neoplasms in TEM.
Endothelial cell-cell junctions :

Circulating ECs (CECs) : higher levels in breast cancer and multiple myeloma
• mature ECs
• endothelial progenitor cells (EPC)
• myointimal cell : a smooth muscle cell found in the intima of an artery.
• intimal cushions : longitudinal thickenings of the intima of certain arteries, e.g., the penile arteries, formed by prominent local concentrations of smooth muscle fibers; they serve functionally as valves, controlling blood flow by occluding the lumen of the artery.
• pericytes / adventitial, pericapillary, perithelial, or perivascular cells / Marchand's cell / Rouget's cell : peculiar elongated cells with the power of contraction, found wrapped about the outside of precapillary arterioles, postcapillary venules, and capillaries
• fibroblastic reticular cells (FRCs) in lymph nodes
• anastomoses : a connection between 2 vessels
• precapillary anastomosis : anastomosis between small arteries just before they become capillaries.
• heterocladic anastomosis : one between branches of different arteries
• homocladic anastomosis : one between two branches of the same artery
• anastomosis arteriolovenularis / arteriolovenular anastomosis / anastomosis arteriovenosa : a vessel that directly interconnects an arteriole and a venule and that acts as a shunt to bypass the capillary bed
• anastomosis arteriovenosa or arteriolovenularis glomeriformis / glomeriform arteriovenous or arteriolovenular anastomosis / glomiform gland / glomus / glomus body : a specialized type of arteriovenous shunt that helps regulate blood flow and is also concerned with maintenance or regulation of temperature; these are found most abundantly in the skin of the hands and feet (especially the digital pads and nail beds), the skin of the nose and ears, and along certain nerves and blood vessels
• pulvinar tunicae internae or intimae segmenti arterialis anastomosis arteriovenae glomeriformis : the wall of the internal coat of the arterial segment of the anastomosis arteriovenosa glomeriformis, consisting of 3 to 6 layers of contractile glomus cells
Cell type : glomus cells : any of the modified smooth muscle cells with uniform nuclei, pale-staining cytoplasm, and indistinct margins that surround the arterial segment of a glomeriform arteriovenous anastomosis, which are richly innervated by fibers of the autonomic nervous system.
• anastomosis arteriovenosa or arteriolovenularis simplex / simple arteriovenous or arteriolovenular anastomosis : a vessel that directly interconnects an artery and a vein, acting as a shunt to bypass the capillary bed
• blood pH-sensitive glomus cells / glomerular cells of the peripheral chemoreceptor system : the system of body structures that respond to variations in PO₂ and PCO₂ of the blood and may play a role in the regulation of respiration, principally :
• the carotid body or glomus / glomus caroticum : a small neurovascular structure located deep to the bifurcation of the right and left carotid arteries, made up of richly innervated epithelioid glomus cells (type I) surrounded by type II cells. It functions as an arterial chemoreceptor (although which component is responsible is uncertain), with stimulation by hypoxia (when PO₂ < 80 mmHg if PCO₂ is constant, < 60 mmHg if PCO₂ varies) > hypercapnia, or acidemia resulting in an increase in blood pressure, cardiac rate, and respiratory movements. Another function may be as an endocrine gland. It is innervated by a plexus of glossopharyngeal, vagal, and sympathetic components.
• the aortic bodies / corpora paraaortica
• the glomus jugulare / jugular glomus / jugulotympanic or tympanic body : an ovoid body found in the adventitia of the upper part of the superior bulb of the internal jugular vein; its structure and presumably its function are similar to those of the glomus caroticum (carotid body)
• glomus tympanicum : a tympanic body located adjacent to the middle ear
• corpus or glomus coccygeum / coccygeal body, gland or glomus / Luschka's body or gland : an oval structure consisting of irregular masses of spherical or polyhedral epithelioid cells grouped around a dilated, sinusoidal capillary vessel, occurring anterior to, or immediately inferior to, the apex of the coccyx, at the termination of the median sacral vessels
• type I : moderately large specific epithelioid cells containing abundant cytoplasm and membrane-bound, electron-dense granules and having a few dendritic processes; they are richly supplied with nerve endings
• type II : without cytoplasmic granules
• baroreceptor / baroceptor / pressoreceptor : a type of interoceptor that is stimulated by changes in pressure, particularly those in the walls of blood vessels (carotid sinus and aortic arch)
• baroreceptor reflex / baroreflex : the reflex responses to stimulation of baroreceptors of the carotid sinus and aortic arch, regulating blood pressure by controlling heart rate, strength of heart contractions, and diameter of blood vessels.
• volumoceptor : a type of interoceptor found in the right atrium and aortic arch that is stimulated by changes in blood volume. They inhibit the vagus nerve and indirectly increase the orthosympathetic tone => reflex vasocostrition of muscular arteriolae and veins
• vasodilatating factors :
• endothelium-derived releasing factor (EDRF) : tonic nitric oxide (NO^.)
• prostaglandin I₂ (PGI₂) / prostacyclin (PC)
• vasoconstrictive factors activate Rho-dependent serine-threonine kinase (Rho-kinase)
• endothelium-derived vasoconstrictive factors (EDCFs)  :
• endothelin 1 (ET-1)
• nonpeptidic EDCF : uridine adenosine tetraphosphate (Up₄A)^ref
• thromboxan A₂ (TxA₂)
• urotensin II
• angiotensin II
• catecholamines
• ACE =| BK => B₂ => NOS => NO^.
• inhibitors of intimal growth :
• phasic nitric oxide (NO^.)
• GAGs
• transforming growth factor b (TGF-b)
• promoters of intimal growth : ET-1
• anatomy

Embryogenesis :
• aortic arches : paired vessels arching from the ventral to the dorsal aorta through the branchial arches of fishes and amniote embryos. In mammalian development, arches 1 and 2 disappear; arch 3 joins the common to the internal carotid; the left arch 4 remains as the arch of the definitive aorta while the right arch 4 joins the aorta to the subclavian artery; arch 5 is absent or disappears; and the ventral halves of arch 6 form the pulmonary arteries while the connections to the dorsal aorta are lost, although the left half, or ductus arteriosus, serves until birth.


• pulmonary arches : the most caudal of the aortic arches, which become the pulmonary arteries
• Zimmermann's arch : an inconstant, rudimentary arch of the embryo, supposed to explain the origin of certain occasionally occurring vessels between the fourth aortic and the pulmonary arch
• fetal blood circulation (see also heart organogenesis) :  that propelled by the fetal heart through the fetus, umbilical cord, and chorionic villi of the placenta


• allantoic or umbilical circulation : fetal circulation through the umbilical vessels
• intervillous circulation : the flow of maternal blood through the intervillous space
• placental circulation : the fetal circulation; also, the maternal circulation through the intervillous space of the placenta
• first, primitive, or primordial circulation : the earliest circulation by which nutriment and oxygen are conveyed to the embryo
• omphalomesenteric or vitelline circulation : the circulation through the blood vessels of the yolk sac
• omphalomesenteric or vitelline veins : veins that return the blood from the yolk sac to the primordial heart of the early embryo
Fetal plasma is slightly more acidic than that of the mother (pH 7.0-7.2 vs. 7.4), so that ion-trapping of basic drugs occurs. The fetal circulation occurs in parallel bypassing pulmonary circulation, while the adulthood circulation is in series.
• arteria uterina / fallopian or uterine artery =>
• => placenta =>
• => vena umbilicalis / umbilical vein : the vein formed by fusion of the atrophied right umbilical vein with the left umbilical vein =>
• vena umbilicalis sinistra / left umbilical vein : former official anatomical nomenclature for the left of the 2 veins that carry blood from the chorion to the sinus venosus and heart in the early embryo; they later fuse to form the vena umbilicalis.
• allantoic veins : paired vessels that accompany the allantois, growing out from the primitive hindgut and entering the connecting stalk of the early embryo; they fuse later into one vessel, the umbilical vein.
• => hepatic portal vein => ductus venosus / duct of Arantius / canal of Cuvier / ductus Arantii (a major blood channel that develops through the embryonic liver, which involutes into the ligamentum venosus) => shunt to inferior vena cava => right atrium =>
• intracardiac shunt : foramen ovale between atria (will involute into fossa ovale) => left atrium  => left ventricle => aorta
• intravascular shunt : blood from superior vena cava => right atrium => right ventricle => left pulmonary artery =>
• => ductus arteriosus / duct of Botallo / arterial canal or duct / pulmoaortic canal (which involutes to ligamentum arteriosus) => descending aorta =>
• lungs => left atrium => left ventricle => aorta
• => arteria umbilicalis / umbilical artery
When the umbilical cord is clumped, P_pulmonary becomes greater than SBP. At just the second breath the endoalveolar fluid has been replaced by air. If the newborn can't breath and decrease pulmonary vascular resistances, you have persistent fetal circulation / primary neonatal pulmonary hypertension
• arteries : a vessel through which the blood passes away from the heart to the various parts of the body. The wall of an artery consists typically of
• outer coat (tunica externa)
• external elastic membrane / external elastic lamina : a fenestrated elastic membrane that constitutes the innermost component of the tunica adventitia of arteries
• middle coat (tunica media)
• conducting or elastic arteries : arterial trunks characterized by large size and elasticity, such as the aorta, subclavian artery, common carotid artery, brachiocephalic trunk, and pulmonary trunk
• arteries of hybrid type : a term denoting the short transitional regions where arteries of the mixed or elastic (conducting) type pass into arteries of the muscular (distributing) type.
• distributing or muscular arteries : most of the arteries except the conducting arteries; of muscular type, they extend from the large vessels to the arterioles
• inner coat (tunica intima)
• internal elastic membrane / internal elastic lamina : a fenestrated elastic membrane that constitutes the outermost component of the tunica intima of arteries
• helicine arteries : small arteries that for their entire length have a band of thickened intima on one side, in which longitudinal muscle fibers are embedded. They follow a convoluted or curled course and open directly into cavernous sinuses instead of capillaries; they play a dominant role in erection of erectile tissue
Distribution :
• end artery : one which undergoes progressive branching without development of channels connecting with other arteries, so that if occluded it cannot supply sufficient blood to the tissue depending on it.
• terminal artery / telangion : an artery that does not divide into branches, but is directly continuous with capillaries




• pulmonary blood circulation
• ascending aorta
• coronary arteries
• intersegmental arteries : paired dorsal branches of the embryonic aorta, originally going to the spinal cord but later mainly to the neck, back, and body wall
• bulbus aortae / bulb of aorta : the enlargement of the aorta at its point of origin from the heart, where the bulges of the aortic sinuses occur
• His' aortic spindle : the dilated part of the aorta just below the isthmus
• aortic isthmus / isthmus aortae / isthmus of aorta : a narrowed portion of the aorta, especially noticeable in the fetus, at the point where the ductus arteriosus is attached
• aortic arch
• epiaortic vessels
• truncus brachiocephalicus / brachiocephalic artery or trunk / innominate artery : the first branch of the arch of the aorta, which behind the right sternoclavicular joint divides into the right common carotid and right subclavian arteries, with distribution to the right side of the head and neck and to the right arm; the lowest thyroid artery may arise from this trunk
• right common carotid artery
• arteria thyroidea ima / lowest thyroid artery / Neubauer's artery : origin, arch of aorta, brachiocephalic trunk or right common carotid; branches, none; distribution, thyroid gland
• right subclavian artery / arteria subclavia : origin, brachiocephalic trunk (right), arch of aorta (left); branches, vertebral, internal thoracic arteries, thyrocervical and costocervical trunks; distribution, neck, thoracic wall, spinal cord, brain, meninges, upper limb
• arteria lusoria : an abnormally situated retroesophageal vessel, usually the subclavian artery from the aortic arch, which may cause symptoms by compression of the esophagus, the trachea, or a nerve
• arteria transversa cervicis / transverse artery of neck / transverse cervical artery / arteria transversa colli  : origin, subclavian artery; branches, deep and superficial rami; distribution, root of neck, muscles of scapula
• ramus superficialis arteriae transversae colli / superficial branch of transverse cervical artery / arteria cervicalis superficialis : a branch that arises from the transverse cervical artery at the anterior border of the levator scapulae muscle, it has ascending and descending branches that supply the levator scapulae, trapezius, and splenius muscles
• left common carotid artery / arteria carotis communis : origin, brachiocephalic trunk (right), aortic arch (left); branches, external and internal carotids
• Malgaigne's trigonum caroticum / fossa carotica / superior carotid triangle : the triangular region bounded by the posterior belly of the digastric muscle and the stylohyoid, the sternocleidomastoid muscle, and the superior belly of the omohyoid


• left subclavian artery
• arteria dorsalis scapulae / dorsal scapular artery / arteria scapularis dorsalis : origin, second or third part of subclavian artery, or may be the deep branch of transverse cervical artery (ramus profundus arteriae transversae cervicis); branches, none; distribution, rhomboid, latissimus dorsi, and trapezius muscles
• truncus costocervicalis / costocervical trunk : an artery that arises from the back of the subclavian artery, arches backward, and at the neck of the first rib divides into the deep cervical and highest intercostal arteries, thus supplying blood to the structures of the first two intercostal spaces, the vertebral column, the muscles of the back, and the deep neck muscles.
• arteria cervicalis profunda / deep cervical artery : origin, costocervical trunk; branches, none; distribution, deep neck muscles
• truncus thyrocervicalis / thyrocervical trunk : a short artery that arises from the convex side of the subclavian artery just medial to the anterior scalene muscle and at once divides into the inferior thyroid, transverse cervical, and suprascapular arteries, supplying thyroid, neck, and scapular regions.
• arteria thyroidea inferior / inferior thyroid artery : origin, thyrocervical trunk; branches, pharyngeal, esophageal, and tracheal rami, inferior laryngeal and ascending cervical arteries; distribution, thyroid gland and adjacent structures.
• arteria laryngea inferior / inferior laryngeal artery : origin, inferior thyroid artery; branches, none; distribution, larynx, trachea, esophagus.
• arteria cervicalis ascendens / ascending cervical artery : origin, inferior thyroid artery; branches, spinal rami; distribution, muscles of neck, vertebrae, vertebral canal
• rami spinales arteriae cervicalis ascendentis / spinal branches of ascending cervical artery : branches that help supply the vertebral canal.
• rami tracheales arteriae thyroideae inferioris / tracheal branches of inferior thyroid artery : vessels supplying the trachea.
• arteria suprascapularis / suprascapular artery / arteria transversa scapulae / transverse scapular artery : origin, thyrocervical trunk; branches, acromial branch; distribution, clavicular, deltoid, and scapular regions
• arteria thoracica interna / internal thoracic artery / arteria mammaria interna / internal mammary artery (IMA) : origin, subclavian artery; branches, mediastinal, thymic, bronchial, tracheal, sternal, perforating, medial mammary, lateral costal, and anterior intercostal branches, pericardiacophrenic, musculophrenic, and superior epigastric arteries; distribution, anterior thoracic wall, mediastinal structures, diaphragm
• arteria epigastrica superior / superior epigastric artery: origin, internal thoracic artery; branches, none; distribution, abdominal wall, diaphragm
• arteria musculophrenica / musculophrenic artery : origin, internal thoracic artery; branches, none; distribution, diaphragm, abdominal and thoracic walls.
• arteria pericardiacophrenica / pericardiacophrenic artery / superior phrenic artery : origin, internal thoracic artery; branches, none; distribution, pericardium, diaphragm, pleura
• rami tracheales arteriae thoracicae internae : the tracheal branches of internal thoracic artery
• rami thymici arteriae thoracicae internae / thymic branches of internal thoracic artery / thymic arteries / arteriae thymicae : branches distributed to the thymus gland in the anterior mediastinum
• rami sternales arteriae thoracicae internae / sternal branches of internal thoracic artery : branches that supply the sternum and the transversus thoracis muscle.
• external carotid artery / arteria carotis externa (r & l) : origin, common carotid; branches, superior thyroid, ascending pharyngeal, lingual, facial, sternocleidomastoid, occipital, posterior auricular, superficial temporal, maxillary; distribution, neck, face, skull.
• arteria maxillaris (interna) / (internal) maxillary artery : origin, external carotid artery; branches, pterygoid rami, and deep auricular, anterior tympanic, inferior alveolar, middle meningeal, masseteric, deep temporal, buccal, posterior superior alveolar, infraorbital, descending palatine, sphenopalatine, and the artery of the pterygoid canal; distribution, both jaws, teeth, muscles of mastication, ear, meninges, nose, nasal sinus, palate
• arteria alveolaris inferior / inferior alveolar or dental artery / mandibular artery : origin, maxillary artery; branches, dental, peridental, mental, and mylohyoid rami; distribution, lower jaw, lower lip, and chin
• arteria alveolaris superior posterior / posterior superior alveolar artery / posterior dental artery : origin, maxillary artery; branches, dental and peridental rami; distribution, molar and premolar regions of upper jaw, maxillary sinus
• arteria auricularis profunda / deep auricular artery : origin, maxillary artery; branches, none; distribution, skin of auditory canal, tympanic membrane, temporomandibular joint
• arteria buccalis or buccinatoria / buccal or buccinator artery : origin, maxillary artery; branches, none; distribution, buccinator muscle, mucous membrane of mouth
• arteria canalis pterygoidei / vidian artery / artery of pterygoid canal : origin, maxillary artery; branches, pterygoid; distribution, roof of pharynx, auditory tube
• arteria infraorbitalis / infraorbital artery : origin, maxillary artery; branches, anterior superior alveolar; distribution, maxilla, maxillary sinus, upper teeth, lower lid, cheek, nose.
• arteria masseterica / masseteric artery : origin, maxillary artery; branches, none; distribution, masseter muscle.
• arteria meningea media / middle meningeal artery : origin, maxillary artery; branches, frontal, parietal, and lacrimal anastomotic, accessory meningeal, and petrosal rami, and the superior tympanic artery; distribution, cranial bones, dura mater.
• arteria tympanica superior / superior tympanic artery : origin, middle meningeal artery; branches, none; distribution, tympanic cavity.
• arteria sphenopalatina / sphenopalatine artery / nasopalatine artery : origin, maxillary artery; branches, posterior lateral nasal artery and posterior septal rami; distribution, structures adjoining nasal cavity, the nasopharynx
• arteriae nasales posteriores laterales / posterior lateral nasal arteries : origin, sphenopalatine artery; branches, none; distribution, frontal, maxillary, ethmoidal, and sphenoidal sinuses
• arteria palatina descendens / descending palatine artery : origin, maxillary artery; branches, greater and lesser palatine arteries; distribution, soft palate, hard palate, tonsil
• arteria palatina major / greater palatine artery : origin, descending palatine; branches, none; distribution, hard palate
• arteriae palatinae minores / lesser palatine arteries : origin, descending palatine; branches, none; distribution, soft palate, tonsil
• arteria temporalis profunda anterior / anterior deep temporal artery : origin, maxillary artery; branches, to zygomatic bone and greater wing of sphenoid bone; distribution, temporal muscle, and anastomoses with middle temporal artery.
• arteria temporalis profunda posterior / posterior deep temporal artery : origin, maxillary artery; branches, none; distribution, temporal muscle, and anastomoses with middle temporal artery
• arteria tympanica anterior / anterior tympanic artery : origin, maxillary artery; branches, none; distribution, tympanic cavity
• arteriae alveolares superiores anteriores / anterior superior alveolar arteries / anterior dental arteries : origin, infraorbital artery; branches, dental and peridental rami; distribution, incisors and canine regions of upper jaw, maxillary sinus
• arteria facialis / facial artery / arteria maxillaris externa or external maxillary artery : origin, external carotid; branches, ascending palatine, tonsillar, submental, inferior labial, superior labial, septal, lateral nasal, angular, glandular; distribution, face, tonsil, palate, submandibular gland
• arteria angularis / angular artery : origin, facial artery; branches, none; distribution, lacrimal sac, lower eyelid, nose
• arteria labialis inferior / inferior labial artery : origin, facial artery; branches, none; distribution, lower lip.
• arteria labialis superior / superior labial artery : origin, facial artery; branches, septal and alar; distribution, upper lip, nose
• arteria palatina ascendens / ascending palatine artery : origin, facial artery; branches, none; distribution, soft palate, wall of pharynx, tonsil, auditory tube
• arteria submentalis / submental artery : origin, facial artery; branches, none; distribution, tissues under chin
• ramus tonsillaris arteriae facialis / ramus tonsillaris arteriae maxillaris externi : tonsillar branch of facial artery: a vessel ascending from the facial artery on the pharynx to supply the tonsil and the root of the tongue.
• arteria auricularis posterior / posterior auricular artery : origin, external carotid; branches, auricular and occipital rami, stylomastoid artery; distribution, middle ear, mastoid cells, auricle, parotid gland, digastric and other muscles
• arteria stylomastoidea / stylomastoid artery : origin, posterior auricular; branches, mastoid and stapedial rami, posterior tympanic artery; distribution, tympanic cavity walls, mastoid cells, stapedius muscle.
• arteria tympanica posterior / posterior tympanic artery : origin, stylomastoid artery; branches, none; distribution, tympanic cavity
• ramus stapedius arteriae auricularis posterioris / stapedial branch of posterior auricular artery : a variable branch supplying the stapedius muscle and tendon.
• arteriae conjunctivales posteriores / posterior conjunctival arteries : origin, medial palpebral artery; branches, none; distribution, caruncula lacrimalis, conjunctiva
• arteria thyroidea superior / superior thyroid artery : origin, external carotid artery; branches, hyoid, sternocleidomastoid, superior laryngeal, cricothyroid, muscular, and anterior, posterior, and lateral glandular branches; distribution, thyroid gland and adjacent structures
• arteria laryngea superior / superior laryngeal artery : origin, superior thyroid artery; branches, none; distribution, larynx
• ramus sternocleidomastoideus arteriae thyroideae superioris / sternocleidomastoid branch of superior thyroid artery : a branch that arises from the superior thyroid artery, but sometimes directly from the external carotid artery, passing across the carotid sheath to supply the middle portion of the sternocleidomastoid muscle.
• truncus linguofacialis / linguofacial trunk : the common trunk by which the facial and lingual arteries often arise from the external carotid artery.
• arteria lingualis / lingual artery : origin, external carotid; branches, suprahyoid, sublingual, dorsal lingual, deep lingual; distribution, tongue, sublingual gland, tonsil, epiglottis
• arteria profunda linguae / deep lingual artery / ranine artery : origin, lingual artery; branches, none; distribution, tongue
• arteria sublingualis / sublingual artery : origin, lingual artery; branches, none; distribution, sublingual gland
• ramus suprahyoideus arteriae lingualis / suprahyoid branch of lingual artery : a branch passing along the upper border of the hyoid bone, supplying suprahyoid muscles and anastomosing with its fellow of the other side.
• arteria pharyngea ascendens / ascending pharyngeal artery : origin, external carotid; branches, posterior meningeal, pharyngeal, and inferior tympanic; distribution, pharynx, soft palate, ear, meninges
• arteria meningea posterior / posterior meningeal artery : origin, ascending pharyngeal; branches, none; distribution, bones, dura mater of posterior cranial fossa
• arteria tympanica inferior / inferior tympanic artery : origin, ascending pharyngeal; branches, none; distribution, tympanic cavity
• arteria occipitalis / occipital artery : origin, external carotid; branches, auricular, meningeal, mastoid, descending, occipital, and sternocleidomastoid rami; distribution, muscles of neck and scalp, meninges, mastoid cells
• deep descending cervical artery : the deep branch of the descending branch of the occipital artery
• rami sternocleidomastoidei arteriae occipitalis / sternocleidomastoid branches of occipital artery / sternocleidomastoid arteries / arteriae sternocleidomastoideae : branches of the occipital artery, usually an upper and a lower, that supply the sternocleidomastoid and adjacent muscles
• arteria temporalis superficialis / superficial temporal artery : origin, external carotid; branches, parotid, auricular, and occipital rami, transverse facial, zygomatico-orbital, and middle temporal arteries; distribution, parotid and temporal regions.
• arteria transversa faciei / transverse facial artery : origin, superficial temporal artery; branches, none; distribution, parotid region.
• arteria temporalis media : 1. middle temporal artery: origin, superficial temporal artery; branches, none; distribution temporal region.  2. intermediate temporal artery: origin, insular part of middle cerebral artery; branches, none; distribution, cortex of temporal lobe between anterior and posterior arteries. Called also middle temporal artery
• arteria zygomaticoorbitalis / zygomatico-orbital artery : origin, superficial temporal; branches, none; distribution, lateral side of orbit.
• internal carotid artery / arteria carotis interna (r & l) : internal carotid artery: origin, common carotid; branches, caroticotympanic, ophthalmic, posterior communicating, anterior choroid, anterior cerebral, and middle cerebral arteries; distribution, middle ear, brain, pituitary gland, orbit, choroid plexus. It is divided into 4 parts: cervical, petrous, cavernous, and cerebral
• sinus caroticus / carotid sinus / bulbus caroticus : the dilated portion of the internal carotid artery, situated above the division of the common carotid artery into its two main branches, or sometimes on the terminal portion of the common carotid artery, containing in its wall pressoreceptors that are stimulated by changes in blood pressure
• siphon caroticum / carotid siphon : the innermost section of the petrosal part of the internal carotid artery just before the artery enters the cranial cavity
• rami trigeminales et trochleares : a twig from the cavernous portion of the internal carotid artery that supplies the trigeminal and trochlear nerves.
• arteria choroidea anterior / anterior choroidal artery : origin, internal carotid or middle cerebral artery; branches, many small branches; distribution, interior of brain, including choroid plexus of lateral ventricle and adjacent parts
• rami tuberis cinerei : small branches of the anterior choroidal artery that supply the tuber cinereum
• rami tractus optici : small branches of the anterior choroid artery that supply the optic tract
• rami substantiae perforatae anterioris : small branches of the anterior choroidal artery that supply the anterior perforated substance.
• rami substantiae nigrae : small branches of the anterior choroidal artery that supply the substantia nigra
• arteria hypophysialis inferior / inferior hypophyseal artery : a small branch from the cerebral part of the internal carotid artery that supplies the pituitary gland
• arteria hypophysialis superior / superior hypophyseal artery : a small branch from the cerebral part of the internal carotid artery that supplies the pituitary gland
• primary plexus : a network of capillaries that arise from the superior hypophysial arteries, extend into the median eminence of the hypothalamus, then return to the surface, where they are collected into veins that supply the sinusoids of the adenohypophysis.
• arteriae caroticotympanicae / caroticotympanic arteries / rami caroticotympanici arteriae carotidis internae : branches of the petrous part of the internal carotid artery that supply the tympanic cavity
• circulus arteriosus cerebri / cerebral arterial circle / arterial circle of Willis / circle of Willis / circulus willisii : the important polygonal anastomosis formed by the internal carotid, the anterior and posterior cerebral arteries, the anterior communicating artery, and the posterior communicating arteries. The encephalon


• arteria communicans posterior / posterior communicating artery (PCoA) : establishes connection between internal carotid and posterior cerebral arteries; branches, to the optic chiasm, oculomotor nerve, thalamus, hypothalamus, and tail of caudate nucleus.
• ramus thalamicus arteriae communicantis posterioris : a branch of the posterior communicating artery that supplies the thalamus
• arteria cerebri anterior / anterior cerebral artery (ACA) : origin, internal carotid artery; branches (precommunical part) anteromedial central arteries, long and short central arteries, anterior communicating artery, and (postcommunical part) medial frontobasal, callosomarginal (anteromedial, interomedial, posteromedial, and cingular branches), paracentral, precuneal, and parieto-occipital arteries; distribution, orbital, frontal, and parietal cortex, corpus callosum, diencephalon, corpus striatum, internal capsule, and choroid plexus of lateral ventricle.
• arteria communicans anterior / anterior communicating artery (ACoA) : origin, precommunical part of anterior cerebral artery; branches, none; distribution, establishes connection between the anterior cerebral arteries
• arteriae centrales anteromediales arteriae cerebri anterioris / anteromedial central arteries of anterior cerebral artery / arteriae thalamostriatae anteromediales / anteromedial thalamostriate arteries : origin, precommunical part of anterior cerebral artery; branches, none; distribution, anterior and medial corpus striatum
• artery of cerebral hemorrhage / lenticulostriate artery : any of various medial or lateral striate arteries that are common sites of cerebral hemorrhage
• arteria centralis brevis / short central artery : a branch from the precommunical part of the anterior cerebral artery
• arteria centralis longa / long central artery / arteria recurrens : a branch of the precommunical part of the anterior cerebral artery
• arteria frontobasalis medialis / medial frontobasal artery / ramus orbitofrontalis medialis arteriae cerebri anterioris : origin, postcommunical part of anterior cerebral artery; branches, none; distribution, medioinferior cortex of frontal lobe
• arteria callosomarginalis / callosomarginal artery : origin, postcommunical part of anterior cerebral artery; branches, anteromedial frontal, mediomedial frontal, posteromedial frontal, and singular branches; distribution, medial and superolateral surfaces of cerebral hemisphere
• arteriae centrales anteromediales arteriae communicantis anterioris / anteromedial central arteries of anterior communicating artery : origin, anterior communicating artery; branches, none; distribution, corpus callosum, septum pellucidum, lentiform and caudate nuclei
• arteria paracentralis / paracentral artery : origin, postcommunical part of anterior cerebral artery; branches, none; distribution, cerebral cortex and medial central sulcus
• arteria precunealis / precuneal artery :  origin, postcommunical part of the anterior cerebral artery; branches, none; distribution, inferior precuneus.
• arteria cerebri media / middle cerebral artery (MCA) / sylvian artery : origin, internal carotid; branches sphenoidal part: anterolateral central artery (with medial and lateral branches); insular part: insular artery, lateral frontobasal artery, and anterior, intermediate, and posterior temporal arteries; terminal or cortical part: arteries of central, precentral, and postcentral sulcus, anterior and posterior parietal arteries, artery of angular gyri; distribution, orbital, frontal, parietal, and temporal cortex, corpus striatum, internal capsule
• arteriae centrales anterolaterales / anterolateral central arteries / arteriae thalamostriatae anterolaterales / anterolateral thalamostriate arteries / striate arteries : origin, sphenoidal part of middle cerebral artery; branches; two sets of branches, medial and lateral; distribution, anterior lenticular and caudate nuclei and internal capsule of brain
• arteria frontobasalis lateralis / lateral frontobasal artery : origin, insular part of middle cerebral artery: branches, none; distribution, cortex of lateroinferior frontal lobe
• arteriae insulares / insular arteries : origin, insular part of middle cerebral artery; branches, none; distribution, cortex of insula.
• arteria gyri angularis / artery of angular gyrus : origin, terminal part of middle cerebral artery; branches, none; distribution, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes
• arteria gyri angularis / artery of angular gyrus : origin, terminal part of middle cerebral artery; branches, none; distribution, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes
• arteriae parietales anterior et posterior / anterior and posterior parietal arteries : origin, terminal part of middle cerebral artery; branches, anterior and posterior branches; distribution, anterior parietal lobe and posterior temporal lobe.
• arteria sulci centralis / artery of central sulcus : origin, terminal part of middle cerebral artery; branches, none: distribution, cortex on either side of central sulcus
• arteria sulci postcentralis / artery of postcentral sulcus : origin, terminal part of middle cerebral artery; branches, none; distribution, cortex on either side of postcentral sulcus
• arteria sulci precentralis / artery of precentral sulcus : origin, terminal part of middle cerebral artery; branches, none; distribution, cortex on either side of precentral sulcus
• arteria temporalis anterior / anterior temporal artery : origin, insular part of middle cerebral artery; branches, none; distribution, cortex of anterior temporal lobe
• arteria temporalis posterior / posterior temporal artery : origin, insular part of middle cerebral artery; branches, none; distribution, cortex of posterior temporal lobe.
• arteria cerebri posterior / posterior cerebral artery (PCA) : origin, terminal bifurcation of basilar artery; branches (precommunical part) posteromedial central arteries, (postcommunical part) posterolateral central arteries, and thalamic, medial and lateral posterior choroidal, and peduncular branches, and (terminal, or cortical, part) lateral occipital artery (anterior, medial intermediate and posterior temporal branches) and medial occipital artery (dorsal corpus callosum, parietal, parieto-occipital, calcarine, and occipitotemporal branches); distribution, occipital and temporal cortex, diencephalon, midbrain, choroid plexus of lateral and third ventricles, and visual area of cerebral cortex and other structures associated with the visual pathway
• arteriae centrales posteromediales arteriae cerebri posterioris / posteromedial central arteries of posterior cerebral artery / paramedian arteries : origin, precommunical part of posterior cerebral artery; branches, none; distribution, anterior thalamus, lateral wall of third ventricle, and globus pallidus of lentiform nucleus
• arteriae centrales posteromediales arteriae communicantis posterioris / posteromedial central arteries of posterior communicating artery : origin, posterior communicating artery; branches, none; distribution, medial thalamic surface and walls of third ventricle.
• arteriae centrales posterolaterales / posterolateral central arteries : origin, postcommunical part of posterior cerebral artery; branches, none; distribution, cerebral peduncle, posterior thalamus, colliculi, pineal and medial geniculate bodies
• arteria occipitalis lateralis / lateral occipital artery : origin, terminal, or cortical, part of posterior cerebral artery; branches, lateral occipital artery and anterior temporal, middle intermediate temporal and posterior temporal branches; distribution, anterior, medial, intermediate, and posterior parts of temporal lobe
• rami temporales anteriores arteriae occipitalis lateralis / anterior temporal branches of lateral occipital artery : branches that supply the cortex of the anterior part of the temporal lobe
• rami temporales intermedii mediales arteriae occipitalis lateralis / intermediate branches of lateral occipital artery : branches that supply the cortex of the mediate and intermediate part of the temporal lobe
• rami temporales posteriores arteriae occipitalis lateralis / posterior temporal branches of lateral occipital artery :  branches that supply the posterior part of the temporal lobe.
• arteria occipitalis medialis / middle occipital artery : origin, terminal, or cortical, part of posterior cerebral artery; branches, dorsal corpus callosum, parietal, parieto-occipital, calcarine, and occipitotemporal branches; distribution, dorsum of corpus callosum, precuneus, cuneus, lingual gyrus, and posterior part of lateral surface of occipital lobe
• rami thalamici arteriae cerebri posterioris : branches of the postcommunical part of the posterior cerebral artery that supply the thalamus.
• arteria ophthalmica / ophthalmic artery : origin, internal carotid; branches, lacrimal, supraorbital, central artery of retina, ciliary, posterior and anterior ethmoidal, palpebral, supratrochlear, dorsal nasal; distribution, eye, orbit, adjacent facial structures.
• arteria dorsalis nasi / dorsal artery of nose / arteria nasi externa : origin, ophthalmic artery; branches, lacrimal; distribution, dorsum of nose
• arteria ethmoidalis anterior / anterior ethmoidal artery : origin, ophthalmic artery; branches, anterior meningeal, anterior septal, and anterior lateral nasal rami; distribution, dura mater, nose, frontal sinus, anterior ethmoidal cells.
• arteria meningea anterior / ramus meningeus anterior arteriae ethmoidalis anterioris :
• arteria ethmoidalis posterior / posterior ethmoidal artery:  origin, ophthalmic artery; branches, none; distribution, posterior ethmoidal cells, dura mater, nose
• arteria centralis retinae / central artery of retina / artery of Zinn : origin, ophthalmic artery; branches, none; distribution, retina
• arteria hyaloidea / hyaloid artery: a fetal vessel that continues forward from the central retinal artery through the vitreous body to supply the lens; it normally is not present after birth
• arteriola macularis inferior / inferior macular arteriole : the inferior arteriole supplying the macula retinae.
• arteriola macularis media / medial arteriole of retina : the small branch supplying blood to the central region of the retina.
• arteriola macularis superior / superior macular arteriole : the superior arteriole supplying the macula retinae.
• arteriola nasalis retinae inferior / inferior nasal arteriole of retina : a small branch of the central artery of the retina supplying the inferior nasal region of the retina.
• arteriola nasalis retinae superior / superior nasal arteriole of retina : a small branch of the central artery of the retina, supplying the superior nasal region of the retina.
• arteriola temporalis retinae inferior / inferior temporal arteriole of retina : a branch of the central artery of the retina, supplying the inferior temporal region of the retina.
• arteriola temporalis retinae superior / superior temporal arteriole of retina : a branch of the central artery of the retina, supplying the superior temporal region of the retina.
• arteria lacrimalis / lacrimal artery : origin, ophthalmic artery; branches, lateral palpebral arteries and recurrent meningeal; distribution, lacrimal gland, upper and lower eyelids, conjunctiva.
• arteriae palpebrales laterales / lateral palpebral arteries : origin, lacrimal artery; branches, none; distribution, eyelids, conjunctiva.
• arteriae palpebrales mediales / medial palpebral arteries : origin, ophthalmic artery; branches, posterior conjunctival; distribution, eyelids
• arteriae conjunctivales anteriores / anterior conjunctival arteries : origin, anterior ciliary; branches, none; distribution, conjunctiva
• pericorneal plexus : anastomosing branches of the anterior conjunctival arteries, arranged in a superficial conjunctival and a deep episcleral layer about the cornea.
• arteriae ciliares anteriores / anterior ciliary arteries : origin, ophthalmic and lacrimal arteries; branches, episcleral and anterior conjunctival arteries; distribution, iris, conjunctiva.
• arteriae episclerales / episcleral arteries : origin, anterior ciliary artery; branches, none; distribution, iris, ciliary process
• arteriae ciliares posteriores breves / short (posterior) ciliary arteries : origin, ophthalmic artery; branches, none; distribution, choroid coat of eye
• arteriae ciliares posteriores longae / long (posterior) ciliary arteries : origin, ophthalmic artery; branches, none; distribution, iris, ciliary process
• arteriae musculares / muscular arteries : branches of the ophthalmic artery consisting of a superior group and an inferior group; the inferior group gives origin to the anterior ciliary arteries.
• arteria supraorbitalis / supraorbital artery : origin, ophthalmic artery; branches, superficial, deep, diploic; distribution, forehead, upper muscles of orbit, upper eyelid, frontal sinus
• arteria supratrochlearis / supratrochlear artery / arteria frontalis / frontal artery : origin, ophthalmic artery; branches, none; distribution, anterior scalp
• circulus arteriosus iridis major / greater arterial circle of the iris : a circle of anastomosing arteries situated in the ciliary body along the ciliary margin of the iris
• circulus arteriosus iridis minor : lesser arterial circle of the iris: a circle of anastomosing arteries in the iris near the pupillary margin
• cerebral arteries : the arteries supplying the cerebral hemispheres, derived from the internal carotid artery (anterior choroid, anterior cerebral, middle cerebral, and posterior communicating arteries and the circle of Willis) or from the basilar artery (posterior cerebral artery)
• arteria vertebralis / vertebral artery (r & l) : divided into four parts: the first or prevertebral part (pars prevertebralis), the second or atlantal part (pars atlantica), the third or transverse part (pars transversaria), and the fourth or intracranial part (pars intracranialis); origin, subclavian artery; branches, transverse part: spinal and muscular rami; intracranial part: anterior spinal artery and posterior inferior cerebellar artery and its branches; distribution, muscles of neck, vertebrae, spinal cord, cerebellum, interior of cerebrum.
• arteria basilaris / basilar artery : origin, from junction of right and left vertebral arteries; branches, pontine branches, and anterior inferior cerebellar, labyrinthine, superior cerebellar, and posterior cerebral arteries; distribution, brain stem, internal ear, cerebellum, posterior cerebrum
• arteria inferior anterior cerebelli / arteria cerebelli inferior anterior / anterior inferior cerebellar artery (AICA) : origin, basilar artery; branches, posterior, spinal (usually) and labyrinthine (usually) arteries; distribution, anteroinferior part of cerebellum, lower and lateral parts of pons and sometimes upper part of medulla oblongata
• arteria labyrinthi / arteria labyrinthina / labyrinthine artery / arteria auditiva interna / internal auditory artery / artery of labyrinth / ramus meatus acustici interni arteriae basilaris : origin, basilar or anterior inferior cerebellar artery; branches, vestibular and cochlear rami; distribution, through the internal acoustic meatus to the internal ear
• arteria spinalis posterior / posterior spinal artery : origin, anterior inferior cerebellar artery (usually); branches, none; distribution, spinal cord.
• arteria inferior posterior cerebelli / arteria cerebelli inferior posterior / posterior inferior cerebellar artery (PICA) : origin, vertebral artery; branches, medial and lateral; distribution, lower cerebellum, medulla, choroid plexus of fourth ventricle
• ramus tonsillae cerebelli arteriae inferioris posterioris cerebelli / tonsillar branch of posterior inferior cerebellar artery : a branch that ascends upward from the posterior inferior cerebellar artery to the tonsil of the cerebellum to supply the dentate nucleus of the cerebellum.
• arteriae mesencephalicae / mesencephalic arteries : origin, basilar artery; branches, none; distribution: cerebral peduncle
• arteriae pontis / pontine arteries / rami ad pontem arteriae basilaris : origin, basilar artery; branches, none; distribution, pons and adjacent areas of brain
• arteria superior cerebelli / superior artery of cerebellum / superior cerebellar artery / arteria cerebelli superior : origin, basilar artery; branches, none; distribution, upper cerebellum, midbrain, pineal body, choroid plexus of third ventricle
• arteria spinalis anterior / anterior spinal artery : origin, intracranial part of vertebral artery; branches, none; distribution, spinal cord
• arteriae membri superioris / arteries of upper limb : the arteries supplying the arm, forearm, and hand, including the axillary, brachial, radial, and ulnar arteries
• rami spinales arteriae vertebralis / spinal branches of vertebral artery / spinal arteries of Adamkiewicz : branches of the transverse part of the vertebral artery; they supply the spinal cord and its meninges, the vertebral bodies, and the intervertebral disks
• axillary artery / arteria axillaris (r & l) : origin, continuation of subclavian artery; branches, subscapular rami, and superior thoracic, thoracoacromial, lateral thoracic, subscapular, and anterior and posterior circumflex humeral arteries; distribution, upper limb, axilla, chest, shoulder
• rami subscapulares arteriae axillaris : subscapular branches of axillary artery: branches that supply the subscapularis muscle
• arteria thoracica lateralis / lateral or long thoracic artery / external mammary artery : origin, axillary artery; branches, mammary branches; distribution, pectoral muscles, mammary gland
• arteria thoracica superior / superior thoracic artery / arteria thoracica suprema and highest thoracic artery : origin, axillary artery; branches, none; distribution, axillary aspect of chest wall
• arteria thoracoacromialis / acromiothoracic, thoracicoacromial or thoracoacromial artery / thoracic axis : origin, axillary artery; branches, clavicular, pectoral, deltoid, acromial rami; distribution, deltoid, clavicular, and thoracic regions
• arteria subscapularis / subscapular artery : origin, axillary artery; branches, thoracodorsal and circumflex scapular arteries; distribution, scapular and shoulder region.
• arteria circumflexa scapulae / circumflex artery of scapula : origin, subscapular artery; branches, none; distribution, inferolateral muscles of the scapula
• arteria thoracodorsalis / thoracodorsal artery : origin, subscapular artery; branches, none; distribution, subscapular and teretes muscles.
• arteria circumflexa humeri anterior / anterior circumflex humeral artery / arteria circumflexa anterior humeri : origin, axillary artery; branches, none; distribution, shoulder joint and head of humerus, long tendon of biceps, tendon of pectoralis major muscle
• arteria circumflexa humeri posterior / posterior circumflex humeral artery / arteria circumflexa posterior humeri : origin, axillary artery; branches; none; distribution, deltoideus, shoulder joint, teres minor and triceps muscles
• arteria subscapularis / subscapular artery : origin, axillary artery; branches, thoracodorsal and circumflex scapular arteries; distribution, scapular and shoulder region.
• brachial artery / arteria brachialis (r & l) : origin, continuation of axillary artery; branches, superficial brachial, deep brachial, nutrient of humerus, superior ulnar collateral, inferior ulnar collateral, radial, and ulnar arteries; distribution, shoulder, arm, forearm, hand
• arteria profunda brachii / deep brachial artery : origin, brachial artery; branches, deltoid ramus, nutrient artery, medial and radial collateral arteries; distribution, humerus, muscles and skin of arm
• arteria collateralis radialis / radial collateral artery : origin, deep brachial artery; branches, none; distribution, brachioradialis and brachialis muscles
• arteria collateralis media / middle collateral artery : origin, deep brachial artery; branches, none; distribution, triceps muscle, elbow joint
• arteria brachialis superficialis / superficial brachial artery : an occasional vessel that arises from high bifurcation of the brachial artery and assumes a more superficial course than usual
• arteriae nutriciae humeri / nutrient arteries of humerus / arteriae nutrientes humeri : origin, brachial and deep brachial arteries; branches, none; distribution, humerus
• arteria collateralis ulnaris inferior / inferior ulnar collateral artery : origin, brachial artery; branches, none; distribution, arm muscles at back of elbow
• arteria collateralis ulnaris superior / superior ulnar collateral artery : origin, brachial artery; branches, none; distribution, elbow joint, triceps muscle
• arteria radialis / radial artery : origin, brachial artery; branches, palmar carpal, superficial palmar and dorsal carpal rami, recurrent radial artery, principal artery of thumb, deep palmar arch; distribution, forearm, wrist, hand.
• arteria princeps pollicis / principal artery of thumb : origin, radial artery; branches, radial of index finger; distribution, each side and palmar aspect of thumb
• arteria radialis indicis / radial artery of index finger / volar radial artery of index finger : origin, principal artery of thumb; branches, none; distribution, index finger
• arteria recurrens radialis / radial recurrent artery : origin, radial artery; branches, none; distribution, brachioradialis, brachialis, elbow region
• arteria ulnaris / ulnar artery : origin, brachial artery; branches, palmar carpal, dorsal carpal, and deep palmar rami, ulnar recurrent and common interosseous arteries, superficial palmar arch; distribution, forearm, wrist, hand
• arteria recurrens ulnaris / ulnar recurrent artery : origin, ulnar artery; branches, anterior and posterior; distribution, elbow joint region.
• arteria interossea communis / common interosseous artery : origin, ulnar artery; branches, anterior and posterior interosseous arteries; distribution, antecubital fossa
• arteria interossea anterior / anterior interosseous artery / arteria interossea volaris / volar interosseous artery : origin, posterior or common interosseous artery; branches, median artery; distribution, deep parts of front of forearm
• arteria interossea posterior / posterior interosseous artery / a. interossea dorsalis and dorsal or posterior interosseous artery : origin, common interosseous artery; branches, recurrent interosseous; distribution, deep parts of back of forearm
• arteria interossea recurrens / recurrent interosseous artery : origin, posterior interosseous or common interosseous artery; branches, none; distribution, back of elbow joint.
• arteriae digitales dorsales manus / dorsal digital arteries of hand : origin, dorsal metacarpal arteries; branches, none; distribution, dorsum of fingers
• arteriae digitales palmares communes / common palmar digital arteries / arteriae digitales volares communes / common volar digital arteries / ulnar metacarpal arteries : origin, superficial volar arch; branches, proper palmar digital arteries; distribution, fingers
• arteriae digitales palmares propriae / proper palmar digital arteries / arteriae digitales volares propriae / collateral digital arteries / proper volar digital arteries : origin, common palmar digital arteries; branches, none; distribution, fingers
• arteriae metacarpales dorsales / dorsal metacarpal arteries / arteriae metacarpeae dorsales : origin, dorsal carpal rete and radial artery; branches, dorsal digital arteries; distribution, dorsum of fingers
• arteriae metacarpales palmares / palmar metacarpal arteries / arteriae metacarpeae palmares / arteriae metacarpeae volares / volar metacarpal arteries / palmar intermetacarpal arteries : origin, deep palmar arch; branches, none; distribution, deep parts of metatarsus
• anterior or palmar carpal arch : an arch formed by anastomosis of the anterior carpal branches of the radial and ulnar arteries
• aortic knob or knuckle : the hump or knob formed by the aortic arch where it joins the descending thoracic aorta seen in radiographs in anteroposterior projections
• descending aorta
• descending thoracic aorta
• rami viscerales partis thoracicae aortae : visceral branches of the thoracic part of the aorta, supplying the lungs, bronchi, esophagus, and pericardium
• intercostal arteries (at each segment) (r & l) / arteriae intercostales posteriores / posterior intercostal arteries : for the first 2, see a. intercostalis posterior prima and a. intercostalis posterior secunda; there are 9 other pairs (III–XI): origin, thoracic aorta; branches, dorsal, spinal, lateral and medial cutaneous, collateral, and lateral mammary; distribution, thoracic wall.
• arteria intercostalis posterior prima / first posterior intercostal artery : origin, highest intercostal artery; branches, dorsal and spinal branches; distribution, upper thoracic wall.
• arteria intercostalis posterior secunda / second posterior intercostal artery : origin, highest intercostal artery; branches, dorsal and spinal branches; distribution, upper thoracic wall
• arteria intercostalis suprema / highest or superior intercostal artery : origin, costocervical trunk; branches, first and second posterior intercostal arteries; distribution, upper thoracic wall
• rami spinales arteriae intercostalis supremae / spinal branches of highest intercostal artery : vessels arising from the dorsal branches of the first and second posterior intercostal arteries, entering intervertebral foramina with the corresponding 2 spinal nerves to help supply the contents of the vertebral canal.
• ramus spinalis rami dorsalis arteriarum intercostalium posteriorum / spinal branch of dorsal branch of posterior intercostal arteries : one of the two branches into which the dorsal branch of a posterior intercostal artery divides, passing through the intervertebral foramen with the corresponding spinal nerve to help supply the contents of the vertebral canal.
• rami spinales arteriarum intercostalium posteriorum / spinal branches of posterior intercostal arteries : branches that arise from the dorsal branches of the posterior intercostal arteries and enter the vertebral canal through the vertebral foramina to supply the vertebrae, spinal cord, and meninges.
• arteriae phrenicae superiores / superior phrenic arteries / superior diaphragmatic arteries : origin, thoracic aorta; branches, none; distribution, upper surface of vertebral portion of diaphragm
• arteria subcostalis / subcostal artery : origin, thoracic aorta; branches, dorsal and spinal branches; distribution, upper posterior abdominal wall.
• ramus spinalis arteriae subcostalis / spinal branch of subcostal artery : a spinal branch corresponding to those arising from the dorsal branches of the posterior intercostal arteries; it enters the vertebral canal to help supply the contents of the canal.
• descending abdominal aorta
• rami viscerales partis abdominalis aortae : visceral branches of the abdominal aorta, comprising the celiac trunk and the superior and inferior mesenteric, renal, testicular, and ovarian arteries
• arteria phrenica inferior / inferior phrenic artery / great phrenic artery / diaphragmatic artery : origin, abdominal aorta; branches, superior suprarenal; distribution, diaphragm, suprarenal gland
• arteriae suprarenales superiores / superior suprarenal arteries : origin, inferior phrenic artery; branches, none; distribution, suprarenal gland
• truncus coeliacus / celiac trunk : the arterial trunk that arises from the abdominal aorta, gives off the left gastric, common hepatic, and splenic arteries, and supplies the esophagus, stomach, duodenum, spleen, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder => celiac tripod
• common hepatic artery / arteria hepatica (communis) : origin, celiac trunk; branches, right gastric, gastroduodenal, hepatic proper; distribution, stomach, pancreas, duodenum, liver, gallbladder, greater omentum
• arteria hepatica propria / hepatic artery proper : origin, common hepatic artery; branches, right and left branches; distribution, liver, gallbladder
• arteria cystica / cystic artery : origin, right branch of proper hepatic artery; branches, none; distribution, gallbladder
• arteriae interlobulares hepatis / interlobular arteries of liver : arteries originating from the right or left branch of the proper hepatic artery, and passing between the lobules of the liver.
• arteria segmenti anterioris hepatici / anterior segmental artery of liver : origin, right hepatic; branches, none; distribution, anterior segment of right lobe of liver
• arteria segmenti lateralis hepatici / lateral segmental artery of liver : origin, left branch of common hepatic artery; branches, none; distribution, lateral segment of left lobe of liver
• arteria segmenti medialis hepatici / medial segmental artery of liver : origin, left branch of common hepatic artery; branches, none; distribution, medial segment of left lobe of live
• arteria segmenti posterioris hepatici / posterior segmental artery of liver : origin, right hepatic; branches, none; distribution, posterior segment of right lobe of liver
• arteria gastrica dextra / right gastric artery / pyloric artery : origin, common hepatic artery; branches, none; distribution, lesser curvature of stomach
• arteria gastroduodenalis / gastroduodenal artery : origin, common hepatic artery; branches, supraduodenal and posterior superior pancreaticoduodenal arteries; distribution, stomach, duodenum, pancreas, greater omentum.
• arteria gastroomentalis dextra / right gastro-omental artery / arteria gastroepiploica dextra / right inferior gastric artery : origin, gastroduodenal artery; branches, gastric, omental; distribution, stomach, greater omentum
• arteria pancreaticoduodenalis superior anterior / anterior superior pancreaticoduodenal artery : origin, gastroduodenal artery; branches, pancreatic and duodenal; distribution, pancreas and duodenum.
• arteria pancreaticoduodenalis superior posterior / posterior superior pancreaticoduodenal artery : origin, gastroduodenal artery; branches, pancreatic and duodenal; distribution, pancreas, duodenum.
• arteriae retroduodenales / retroduodenal arteries : origin, first branch of gastroduodenal; branches, none; distribution, bile duct, duodenum, head of pancreas
• arteria supraduodenalis / supraduodenal artery : origin, gastroduodenal; branches, duodenal; distribution, superior first part of duodenum.
• arteria lobi caudati / artery of caudate lobe : either of two branches, one from the right and one from the left hepatic artery, supplying twigs to the caudate lobe of the liver.
• left gastric artery / arteria gastrica sinistra / left coronary artery of stomach : origin, celiac; branches, esophageal; distribution, esophagus, lesser curvature of stomach
• inferior esophageal arteries / rami oesophageales arteriae gastricae sinistrae
• lienal or splenic artery / arteria lienalis or splenica  origin, celiac trunk; branches, pancreatic and splenic branches, prepancreatic, left gastro-omental, and short gastric arteries; distribution, spleen, pancreas, stomach, greater omentum
• arteria caudae pancreatis / artery of tail of pancreas : origin, splenic; branches and distribution, supplies branches to tail of pancreas, and accessory spleen (if present)
• arteriae gastricae breves / short gastric arteries : origin, splenic; branches, none; distribution, upper part of stomach
• arteria gastrica posterior / Rio Branco ascending gastric branch / posterior gastric artery : origin, splenic artery; branches, none; distribution, posterior gastric wall
• arteria gastroomentalis sinistra / left gastro-omental artery / arteria gastroepiploica sinistra / left inferior gastric artery : origin, splenic artery; branches, gastric, omental; distribution, stomach, greater omentum
• arteria pancreatica dorsalis / dorsal pancreatic artery : origin, splenic; branches, inferior pancreatic; distribution, neck and body of pancreas
• arteria pancreatica inferior / inferior pancreatic artery:  origin, dorsal pancreatic; branches, none; distribution, body and tail of pancreas.
• arteria pancreatica magna / great pancreatic artery : origin, splenic artery; branches and distribution, right and left branches anastomose with other pancreatic arteries.
• arteria prepancreatica / prepancreatic artery : an arterial arch between the neck and uncinate process of the pancreas, formed by the right branch of the dorsal ramus of the splenic artery and a branch from the anterior superior pancreaticoduodenal artery
• central arteries of spleen : branches of the splenic artery after they leave the trabeculae; their tunica adventitia is replaced by a cylindrical lymphoid sheath and they pass through the aggregations of lymphatic nodules and branch out to terminate as splenic penicilli
• rami splenici arteriae splenicae / splenic branches of splenic artery / rami lienales arteriae lienalis : the terminal branches of the splenic artery, which follow the trabeculae
• superior mesenteric artery (SMA) / arteria mesenterica superior : origin, abdominal aorta; branches, inferior pancreaticoduodenal, jejunal, ileal, ileocolic, right colic, and middle colic arteries; distribution, small intestine, proximal half of colon => arteriae intestinales / intestinal arteries : the arteries arising from the superior mesenteric, and supplying the intestines, including the pancreaticoduodenal, jejunal, ileal, ileocolic, and colic arteries.
• arteriae jejunales / jejunal arteries : origin, superior mesenteric; branches, none; distribution, jejunum
• arteria marginalis coli / marginal artery of colon of Drummond : a continuous vessel running along the inner perimeter of the large intestine from the ileocolic junction to the rectum, formed by branches from the superior and inferior mesenteric arteries and giving rise to straight arteries that supply the intestinal wall
• arteria colica dextra / right colic artery :  origin, superior mesenteric artery; branches, none; distribution, ascending colon
• arteria colica media / middle colic artery / accessory superior colic artery : origin, superior mesenteric artery; branches, none; distribution, transverse colon
• arteriae ileae / arteriae ileales / ileal arteries / arteriae ilei / arteries of ileum : origin, superior mesenteric; branches, none; distribution, ileum
• arteria ileocolica / ileocolic artery / inferior right colic artery : origin, superior mesenteric; branches, anterior and posterior cecal and appendicular arteries and colic (ascending) and ileal rami; distribution, ileum, cecum, vermiform appendix, ascending colon
• arteria appendicularis / appendicular or vermiform artery: origin, ileocolic artery; branches, none; distribution, vermiform appendix
• arteria cecalis or caecalis anterior / anterior cecal artery : origin, ileocolic; branches, none; distribution, cecum
• arteria cecalis or caecalis posterior / posterior cecal artery : origin, ileocolic; branches, none; distribution, cecum
• arteriae pancreaticoduodenales inferiores / inferior pancreaticoduodenal arteries : origin, superior mesenteric artery; branches, anterior, posterior; distribution, pancreas, duodenum
• arteria renalis / renal artery ( r & l) : origin, abdominal aorta; branches, ureteral branches, inferior suprarenal artery; distribution, kidney, suprarenal gland, ureter => arteriae intrarenales / intrarenal arteries : the arteries of the kidney, including the interlobar, arcuate, and interlobular arteries, and the arteriolae rectae
• arteriae interlobares renis / interlobar arteries of kidney : origin, lobar branches of segmental arteries; branches, arcuate arteries; distribution, parenchyma of kidney
• arteriae arcuatae renis / arcuate arteries of kidney /arteriae arciformes renis / arterial arches of kidney : origin, interlobar artery; branches, interlobular artery and arteriolae rectae; distribution, parenchyma of kidney
• arteriae interlobulares renis / interlobular or radiate arteries of kidney : arteries originating from the arcuate arteries of the kidney and distributed to the renal glomeruli
• arteriae capsulares / capsular arteries / arteriae perirenales / perirenal arteries : origin, renal artery; branches, none; distribution, renal capsule
• arteria segmenti anterioris inferioris renalis / anterior inferior segmental artery of kidney : origin, anterior branch of renal artery; branches, none; distribution, anterior inferior segment of kidney.
• arteria segmenti anterioris superioris renalis / anterior superior segmental artery of kidney : origin, anterior branch of renal artery; branches, none; distribution, anterior superior segment of kidney.
• arteria segmenti inferioris renalis / inferior segmental artery of kidney : origin, anterior branch of renal artery; branches, none; distribution, inferior segment of kidney.
• arteria segmenti posterioris renalis / posterior segmental artery of kidney : origin, posterior branch of renal artery; branches, none; distribution, posterior segment of kidney.
• arteria segmenti superioris renalis / superior segmental artery of kidney : origin, anterior branch of renal artery; branches, none; distribution, superior segment of kidney.
• arteria suprarenalis inferior / inferior suprarenal artery / inferior capsular artery : origin, renal artery; branches, none; distribution, suprarenal gland
• rami ureterici arteriae renalis / ureteral branches of renal artery : branches that supply the upper portion of the ureter.
• arteriolae rectae renis / straight arterioles of kidney / straight arteries of kidney and vasa recta renis : branches of the arcuate arteries of the kidney arising from the efferent glomerular arterioles, and passing down to the renal pyramids, Also sometimes called arteriolae rectae spuriae or false straight arterioles of the kidney to distinguish them from straight direct branches from the arcuate and interlobular arteries that are called arteriolae rectae verae or true straight arterioles of the kidney.
• arteriola glomerularis afferens / afferent glomerular arteriole / afferent artery of glomerulus / afferent vessel of glomerulus / vas afferens glomeruli : a branch of an interlobular artery that goes to a renal glomerulus; called also .
• arteriola glomerularis efferens / efferent glomerular arteriole / efferent artery of glomerulus / efferent vessel of glomerulus / vas efferens glomeruli : an arteriole that arises from a renal glomerulus and breaks up into capillaries to supply renal tubules
• arteria suprarenalis media / middle suprarenal artery / arteria adrenalis media / middle capsular artery / aortic suprarenal artery (r & l) : origin, abdominal aorta; branches, none; distribution, suprarenal gland
• gonadal artery (r & l)
• arteria ovarica / ovarian artery / tubo-ovarian artery / aortic uterine artery : origin, abdominal aorta; branches, ureteral, tubal; distribution, ureter, ovary, uterine tube
• rami ureterici arteriae ovaricae / ureteral branches of ovarian artery : branches distributed to the ureter
• rami tubarii arteriae ovaricae / tubal branches of ovarian artery : branches distributed to the uterine tubes.
• arteria testicularis / funicular or testicular artery / internal spermatic artery : origin, abdominal aorta; branches, ureteral, epididymal; distribution, ureter, epididymis, testis
• rami ureterici arteriae testicularis : ureteral branches of testicular artery: branches distributed to the ureter.
• inferior mesenteric artery (IMA) / arteria mesenterica inferior : origin, abdominal aorta; branches, left colic, sigmoid, and superior rectal arteries; distribution, descending colon, rectum
• arteria colica sinistra / left colic artery : origin, inferior mesenteric; branches, none; distribution, descending colon
• arteriae sigmoideae / sigmoid arteries : origin, inferior mesenteric artery; branches, none; distribution, sigmoid colon.
• arteria rectalis superior / superior rectal artery / arteria haemorrhoidalis superior / superior hemorrhoidal artery : origin, inferior mesenteric artery; branches, none; distribution, rectum
• arteria lumbalis / lumbar artery (r & l) : origin, abdominal aorta; branches, dorsal and spinal branches; distribution, posterior abdominal wall, renal capsule
• arteriae lumbales imae / lowest lumbar arteries / fifth lumbar arteries : origin, middle sacral; branches, none; distribution, sacrum, gluteus maximus muscle
• ramus spinalis arteriarum lumbalium / spinal branch of lumbar arteries : a branch arising from the dorsal branch of the lumbar arteries and entering an intervertebral foramen with the spinal nerve to help supply the contents of the vertebral canal.
• arteria sacralis mediana / median sacral artery / caudal, coccygeal, or sacrococcygeal artery : origin, continuation of abdominal aorta; branches, lowest lumbar artery; distribution, sacrum, coccyx, rectum
• arteriae membri inferioris / arteries of lower limb : the arteries supplying the thigh, leg, and foot, including the external iliac, femoral, deep femoral, popliteal, anterior and posterior tibial, dorsalis pedis, medial and lateral plantar, and fibular arteries.
• common iliac artery / arteria iliaca communis (r & l) : origin, abdominal aorta; branches, internal and external iliac; distribution, pelvis, abdominal wall, lower limb
• arteria iliaca interna / internal iliac artery / arteria hypogastrica / hypogastric artery / posterior pelvic artery (r & l) : origin, continuation of common iliac; branches, iliolumbar, obturator, superior gluteal, inferior gluteal, umbilical, inferior vesical, uterine, middle rectal, and internal pudendal arteries; distribution, wall and viscera of pelvis, buttock, reproductive organs, medial aspect of thigh
• arteria uterina / fallopian uterine artery : origin, internal iliac artery; branches, ovarian and tubal rami, vaginal artery; distribution, uterus, vagina, round ligament of uterus, uterine tube, ovary
• arteria vaginalis / vaginal artery : origin, uterine artery; branches, none; distribution, vagina, fundus of bladder
• arteriae cervicovaginales / cervicovaginal arteries : several large branches of the uterine artery given off at the side of the uterus at the level of the cervix, to supply the vagina.
• rami vaginales arteriae uterinae / vaginal branches of uterine artery / arteriae azygoi vaginae / azygos arteries of vagina : 2 median longitudinal vessels formed by anastomosis of branches of the uterine and vaginal arteries, one of which descends in front of and the other behind the vagina
• ramus tubalis or tubarius arteriae uterinae / tubal branch of uterine artery : a branch that supplies the uterine tube and the round ligament
• arteria glutea or glutealis superior / superior gluteal artery : origin, internal iliac artery; branches, superficial and deep branches; distribution, buttocks
• ramus superior rami profundi arteriae gluteae superioris / superior branch of deep branch of superior gluteal artery : the upper division of the deep branch of the superior gluteal artery, extending as far as the anterior superior iliac spine and helping supply the gluteus medius, gluteus minimus, and tensor fasciae latae muscles.
• arteria glutea or glutealis inferior / inferior gluteal artery : origin, internal iliac; branches, sciatic; distribution, buttock, back of thigh
• arteria comitans nervi ischiadici / accompanying artery of ischiadic nerve / arteria comitans nervi sciatici / artery to sciatic nerve / sciatic artery : origin, inferior gluteal artery; branches, none; distribution, accompanies sciatic nerve
• arteria rectalis media / middle rectal artery / arteria haemorrhoidalis media / middle hemorrhoidal artery : origin, internal iliac artery; branches, vaginal; distribution, rectum, prostate, seminal vesicles, vagina
• rami vaginales arteriae rectalis mediae : a branch of the middle rectal artery that supplies the vagina.
• arteria pudenda interna / internal pudendal artery : origin, internal iliac artery; branches, posterior scrotal or posterior labial branches and inferior rectal, perineal, urethral arteries, artery of bulb of penis or vestibule, deep artery of penis or clitoris, dorsal artery of penis or clitoris; distribution, external genitalia, anal canal, perineum.
• arteria dorsalis clitoridis / dorsal artery of clitoris : origin, internal pudendal artery; branches, none; distribution, clitoris
• arteria profunda clitoridis / deep artery of clitoris : origin, internal pudendal artery; branches, none; distribution, clitoris.
• arteria urethralis / urethral artery : origin, internal pudendal artery; branches, none; distribution, urethra.
• arteria profunda penis / deep artery of penis : origin, internal pudendal artery; branches, none; distribution, corpus cavernosum penis.
• arteria dorsalis penis / dorsal artery of penis : origin, internal pudendal artery; branches, none; distribution, glans, corona, prepuce
• arteriae helicinae penis / helicine arteries of penis / arteries of Mueller : helicine arteries arising from the vessels of the penis, whose engorgement causes erection of the organ
• arteria bulbi penis / artery of bulb of penis / arteria bulbi urethrae / bulbourethral artery : origin, internal pudendal artery; branches, none; distribution, bulbourethral gland, bulb of penis
• arteria bulbi vestibuli / artery of bulb of vestibule : origin, internal pudendal artery; branches, none; distribution, vestibular bulb, greater vestibular glands
• arteria perinealis / perineal artery / arteria perinei : origin, internal pudendal artery; branches, none; distribution, perineum, skin of external genitalia
• arteria rectalis inferior / inferior rectal artery / arteria haemorrhoidalis inferior / inferior hemorrhoidal artery : origin, internal pudendal artery; branches, none; distribution, rectum, anal canal
• arteria umbilicalis / umbilical artery : origin, internal iliac artery; branches, deferential, superior vesical arteries; distribution, ductus deferens, seminal vesicles, testes, urinary bladder, ureter
• arteria ductus deferentis / artery of ductus deferens / arteria deferentialis / deferential artery : origin, umbilical artery; branches, ureteral artery; distribution, ureter, ductus deferens, seminal vesicles, testes
• rami ureterici arteriae ductus deferentis / ureteral branches of artery of ductus deferens : branches that supply the lower portion of the ureter.
• arteriae vesicales superiores / superior vesical arteries : origin, umbilical artery; branches, none; distribution, bladder, urachus, ureter
• pars patens arteriae umbilicalis : patent part of umbilical artery: the proximal section of the fetal umbilical cord, which remains patent in the adult, although reduced in size
• pars occlusa arteriae umbilicalis : the portion of an umbilical artery that atrophies at birth when the placental circulation ceases to become the medial umbilical ligament
• Hoboken's valves : foldlike thickenings of the vessels of the umbilical cord, especially the arteries, which protrude into the lumen of the vessels
• arteria glutea or glutealis inferior / inferior gluteal artery : origin, internal iliac; branches, sciatic; distribution, buttock, back of thigh
• arteria glutea or glutealis superior / superior gluteal artery : origin, internal iliac artery; branches, superficial and deep branches; distribution, buttocks
• ramus superficialis arteriae gluteae superioris : superficial branch of superior gluteal artery: a branch that ramifies to supply the gluteus maximus muscle.
• arteria iliolumbalis / iliolumbar artery / small iliac artery : origin, internal iliac; branches, iliac and lumbar branches, lateral sacral arteries; distribution, pelvic muscles and bones, fifth lumbar segment, sacrum
• arteriae sacrales laterales / lateral sacral arteries : origin, iliolumbar artery; branches, spinal branches; distribution, structures about coccyx and sacrum
• rami spinales arteriarum sacralium lateralium / spinal branches of lateral sacral arteries : vessels arising from the 2 lateral sacral arteries and entering the pelvic sacral foramina to help supply the contents of the vertebral canal.
• ramus spinalis arteriae iliolumbalis / spinal branch of iliolumbar artery ; a branch that passes through the intervertebral foramen between the fifth lumbar vertebra and the sacrum to help supply the contents of the vertebral canal.
• arteria iliaca externa / external iliac artery / anterior iliac artery (r&l): origin, common iliac; branches, inferior epigastric, deep circumflex iliac; distribution, abdominal wall, external genitalia, lower limb
• arteria circumflexa ilium profunda / deep circumflex iliac artery : origin, external iliac artery; branches, ascending branches; distribution, iliac region, abdominal wall, groin
• arteria vesicalis inferior / inferior vesical artery : origin, internal iliac; branches, prostatic; distribution, bladder, prostate, seminal vesicles, lower ureter.
• arteria obturatoria / obturator artery : origin, internal iliac; branches, pubic, acetabular, anterior, and posterior branches; distribution, pelvic muscles, hip joint
• arteria epigastrica inferior / inferior epigastric artery : origin, external iliac; branches, pubic branch, cremasteric artery, a. of round ligament of uterus; distribution, abdominal wall
• arteria cremasterica / cremasteric artery / arteria spermatica externa / external spermatic artery : origin, inferior epigastric; branches, none; distribution, cremaster muscle, coverings of spermatic cord
• arteria ligamenti teretis uteri / artery of round ligament of uterus : origin, inferior epigastric artery; branches, none; distribution, round ligament of uterus.
• arteria obturatoria accessoria / accessory obturator artery : a name given to the obturator artery when it arises from the inferior epigastric instead of the internal iliac artery
• femoral artery / arteria femoralis (r & l) : origin, continuation of external iliac; branches, superficial epigastric, superficial circumflex iliac, external pudendal, deep femoral, descending geniculate; distribution, lower abdominal wall, external genitalia, lower extremity. NOTE: Vascular surgeons refer to the portion of the femoral artery proximal to the branching of the deep femoral as the common femoral artery, and to its continuation as the superficial femoral artery. In this classification, the descending geniculate artery is a branch of the superficial femoral artery
• arteria pudenda externa profunda / deep external pudendal artery : origin, femoral artery; branches, anterior scrotal or anterior labial and inguinal branches; distribution, external genitalia, upper medial thigh.
• arteria pudenda externa superficialis / superficial external pudendal artery : origin, femoral artery; branches, none; distribution, external genitalia.
• arteria circumflexa ilium superficialis / superficial circumflex iliac artery : origin, femoral artery; branches, none; distribution, groin, abdominal wall
• arteria descendens genicularis or genus / descending genicular artery : origin, femoral artery; branches, saphenous, articular; distribution, knee joint, upper and medial leg
• arteria epigastrica superficialis / superficial epigastric artery : origin, femoral; branches, none; distribution, abdominal wall, groin
• arteria profunda femoris / deep femoral artery : origin, femoral artery; branches, medial and lateral circumflex arteries of thigh, perforating arteries; distribution, thigh muscles, hip joint, gluteal muscles, femur
• arteriae perforantes / perforating arteries : origin, branches (usually three) of the deep femoral artery that perforate the insertion of the adductor magnus to reach the back of the thigh; branches, nutrient arteries; distribution, adductor, hamstring, and gluteal muscles, and femur
• arteriae nutriciae femoris / nutrient arteries of femur / arteriae nutrientes femoris : origin, third perforating artery; branches, none; distribution, femur
• arteria circumflexa femoris lateralis / lateral circumflex femoral artery : origin, deep femoral artery; branches, ascending, descending, and transverse branches; distribution, hip joint, thigh muscles
• ramus transversus arteriae circumflexae femoris lateralis / transverse branch of lateral circumflex femoral artery : a branch that pierces the vastus lateralis muscle, turning around the femur to anastomose with the transverse branch of the medial circumflex femoral artery and with other arteries, deep to the gluteus maximus muscle
• ramus transversus arteriae circumflexae femoris medialis / transverse branch of medial circumflex femoral artery : a branch that passes between the quadratus femoris and adductor magnus muscles, supplying them, and then turning around the femur to anastomose with the transverse branch of the lateral circumflex femoral artery and with other arteries, deep to the gluteus maximus muscle.
• arteria circumflexa femoris medialis / medial circumflex femoral artery : origin, deep femoral artery; branches, deep, superficial, ascending, transverse, and acetabular branches; distribution, hip joint, thigh muscles
• ramus transversus arteriae circumflexae femoris medialis : transverse branch of medial circumflex femoral artery: a branch that passes between the quadratus femoris and adductor magnus muscles, supplying them, and then turning around the femur to anastomose with the transverse branch of the lateral circumflex femoral artery and with other arteries, deep to the gluteus maximus muscle.
• ramus superficialis arteriae circumflexae femoris medialis / superficial branch of medial circumflex femoral artery : a branch passing between the quadratus femoris and the proximal border of the adductor magnus and anastomosing with the inferior gluteal, lateral circumflex femoral, and first perforating arteries.
• arteria poplitea / popliteal artery : origin, continuation of femoral artery; branches, lateral and medial superior genicular, middle genicular, sural, lateral and medial inferior genicular, anterior and posterior tibial arteries, and the genicular articular and the patellar rete; distribution, knee, calf.
• arteriae surales / sural arteries : origin, popliteal artery; branches, none; distribution, popliteal space, calf.
• arteria tibialis anterior / anterior tibial artery (r & l) : origin, popliteal artery; branches, posterior and anterior tibial recurrent, and lateral and medial anterior malleolar arteries, lateral and medial malleolar retes; distribution, leg, ankle, foot
• arteria malleolaris anterior lateralis / lateral anterior malleolar artery : origin, anterior tibial artery; branches, none; distribution, ankle joint
• arteria malleolaris anterior medialis / medial anterior malleolar artery : origin, anterior tibial artery; branches, none; distribution, ankle joint
• arteria inferior lateralis genus / lateral inferior artery of knee / lateral inferior genicular artery / arteria genus inferior lateralis : origin, popliteal artery; branches, none; distribution, knee joint
• arteria superior lateralis genus / lateral superior artery of knee / lateral superior genicular artery  / arteria genus superior lateralis : origin, popliteal artery; branches, none; distribution, knee joint, femur, patella, contiguous muscles
• arteria superior medialis genus / medial superior artery of knee / medial superior genicular artery / arteria genus superior medialis : origin, popliteal artery; branches, none; distribution, knee joint, femur, patella, contiguous muscles
• arteria inferior medialis genus / medial inferior artery of knee / medial inferior genicular artery / arteria genus inferior medialis : origin, popliteal artery; branches, none; distribution, knee joint
• arteria media genus / middle artery of knee / middle genicular artery / arteria genus media : origin, popliteal artery; branches, none; distribution, knee joint, cruciate ligaments, patellar synovial and alar folds
• arteria tibialis posterior / posterior tibial artery (r & l) : origin, popliteal artery; branches, fibular circumflex branch, peroneal, medial plantar, and lateral plantar arteries; distribution, leg, foot.
• arteria recurrens tibialis anterior / anterior tibial recurrent artery : origin, anterior tibial artery; branches, none; distribution, tibialis anterior, extensor digitorum longus, knee joint, contiguous fascia and skin
• arteria recurrens tibialis posterior / posterior tibial recurrent artery : origin, anterior tibial artery; branches, none; distribution, knee
• arteria plantaris lateralis / lateral plantar artery / external plantar artery : origin, posterior tibial artery; branches, plantar arch, and plantar metatarsal arteries; distribution, sole of foot and toes
• arteria plantaris medialis / medial plantar artery : origin, posterior tibial artery; branches, deep and superficial branches; distribution, sole of the foot and toes
• ramus superficialis arteriae plantaris medialis / superficial branch of medial plantar artery : a branch that supplies the medial side of the great toe.
• arteria nutricia tibiae / arteria nutricia tibialis / nutrient artery of tibia / arteria nutriens tibiae / arteria nutriens tibialis : nutrient tibial artery: origin, posterior tibial artery; branches, none; distribution, tibia
• arteria fibularis / arteria peronea / peroneal artery / fibular artery : origin, posterior tibial artery; branches, perforating, communicating, calcaneal, and lateral and medial malleolar branches, and calcaneal rete; distribution, outside and back of ankle, deep calf muscles
• arteria nutricia fibulae / nutrient artery of fibula / arteria nutriens fibulae : origin, fibular artery; branches, none; distribution, fibula
• arteria dorsalis pedis / dorsal artery of foot : origin, continuation of anterior tibial; branches, lateral and medial tarsal, arcuate, and deep plantar arteries; distribution, foot, toes.
• arteria tarsalis lateralis / lateral tarsal artery / arteria tarsea lateralis : origin, dorsal artery of foot; branches, none; distribution, tarsus
• arteriae tarsales mediales / medial tarsal arteries / arteriae tarseae mediales : origin, dorsal artery of foot; branches, none; distribution, side of foot
• arteria arcuata pedis / arcuate artery of foot : origin, dorsal artery of foot; branches, deep plantar branch and dorsal metatarsal artery; distribution, foot, toes.
• arteriae metatarsales dorsales / dorsal metatarsal arteries / arteriae metatarseae dorsales : origin, arcuate artery of foot; branches, dorsal digital arteries; distribution, foot, toes
• arteriae digitales dorsales pedis / dorsal digital arteries of foot : origin, dorsal metatarsal arteries; branches, none; distribution, dorsum of toes
• arteria plantaris profunda / deep plantar artery / ramus plantaris profundus arteriae dorsalis pedis : origin, dorsal artery of foot; branches, none; distribution, sole of foot to help form plantar arch
• arteriae metatarsales plantares / plantar metatarsal arteries /arteriae metatarseae plantares / common digital arteries of foot  : origin, plantar arch; branches, perforating branches, common and proper plantar digital arteries; distribution, toes
• arteriae digitales plantares communes / common plantar digital arteries : origin, plantar metatarsal arteries; branches, proper plantar digital arteries; distribution, toes.
• arteriae digitales plantares propriae / proper plantar digital arteries : origin, common plantar digital arteries; branches, none; distribution, toes
• portal system : an arrangement of vessels whereby blood collected from one set of capillaries passes through a large vessel or vessels and then through a second set of capillaries before it returns to the systemic circulation; such an arrangement occurs in the hypophysis and the liver.
• arteriola / arteriole : a minute arterial branch, especially one just proximal to a capillary
• venula / venule : any of the small vessels that collect blood from the capillary plexuses and join to form veins
• high endothelial venules (HEVs) are normally only found in secondary lymphoid tissues (except for the sleen)^ref. The composition and distribution of lymphocyte traffic molecules on HEVs differs between lymphoid organs, and the presence and function of HEVs is regulated throughout life. For example, HEVs in the LNs of newborn mice are MADCAM1⁺PNAD^-. The adult LN-specific (that is PNAD⁺MADCAM^-) HEV phenotype is only gradually acquired post-natally^ref. The maintenance of HEVs and the ability of LNs to recruit lymphocytes from the blood depends on intact afferent lymphatic vessels^{ref1, ref2, ref3}. Although the lymph-borne factor(s) that provide this maintenance signal have not been identified, some evidences indicates that macrophages are involved in its generation^{ref1, ref2}. Cytokines also regulate the development of HEVs - for example ectopic HEVs can be induced by transgenic expression of lymphoid chemokines or lymphotoxin (LT)^{ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4}, or by local injections of LTa-immunoglobulin chimeric fusion protein^ref. Indeed LT and its receptors are required for the formation of HEVs as well as of the LNs themselves^{ref1, ref2}. HEVs are often induced at non-lymphoid sites of chronic inflammation, presumably because flat-walled venules are exposed to differentiation signals from infiltrating inflammatory cells^ref (inducible by high doses of IFN-g, but repressed by low doses of IFN-g!). Arrowheads indicate HEV cells, while arrows indicate crossing lymphocytes :


• vein / vena : a vessel through which blood passes from various organs or parts back to the heart; all veins except the pulmonary veins carry blood low in oxygen. Like arteries, veins have three coats, an inner, middle, and outer, but the coats are not so thick, and they collapse when the vessel is cut. Many veins have valves formed of reduplications of their lining membrane, which prevent the backward flow of blood away from the heart.
• vena comitans / accompanying vein : a vein, usually occurring in a pair (venae comitantes), that closely accompanies its homonymous artery and is found especially in the extremities
• afferent veins : veins that carry blood to an organ
• venae vasorum : small veins that return blood from the tissues making up the walls of the blood vessels themselves
• central vein : a vein that occupies the axis of an organ
• valvula venosa / venous valve : any of the small cusps or folds found in the tunica intima of many veins, serving to prevent backflow of blood.
• vena profunda / deep vein : any deeply situated vein
• vena superficialis / superficial vein : any superficially situated vein.
• vena cutanea / cutaneous vein : one of the small veins that begin in the papillae of the skin, form subpapillary plexuses, and open into the subcutaneous veins



• superior vena cava (SVC) / vena cava superior : the venous trunk draining blood from the head, neck, upper extremities, and chest; it begins by union of the two brachiocephalic veins, passes directly downward, and empties into the right atrium of the heart
• vena jugularis interna / internal jugular vein ( r&l) : the vein that begins as the superior bulb in the jugular fossa, draining much of the head and neck; it descends with first the internal carotid and then the common carotid artery in the neck, and joins with the subclavian vein to form the brachiocephalic vein.
• sinuses of dura mater / sinus durae matris / cranial or dural sinuses / sinus venosi durales / venous sinuses of dura mater : large venous channels forming an anastomosing system between the endocranium and the meningeal layer of the dura mater encephali. They are devoid of valves, do not collapse when drained, and in some parts contain numerous trabeculae. They drain the cerebral veins and some diploic and meningeal veins into the veins of the neck. Those at the base of the skull also drain most of the blood from the orbit. In some places they communicate with superficial veins by small emissary vessels
• confluens sinuum / confluence of (venous) sinuses / torcular Herophili : the dilated point of confluence of the superior sagittal, straight, occipital, and 2 transverse sinuses of the dura mater, lodged in a depression at one side of the internal occipital protuberance
• circular sinus / sinus circularis / Ridley's sinus : the venous ring around the hypophysis formed by
• sinus cavernosus / cavernous sinus (2), irregularly shaped and located at either side of the body of the sphenoid bone, extending from the medial end of the superior orbital fissure in front to the apex of the petrous temporal bone behind. Each sinus receives the corresponding
• superior ophthalmic vein
• superficial middle cerebral vein
• sphenoparietal sinus
.., and communicates with the opposite cavernous sinus and with the transverse sinuses and internal jugular vein by way of the petrosal sinuses. Each cavernous sinus commonly comprises one or more main venous channels and contains the internal carotid artery and abducent (VI) nerve within its lumen and oculomotor (III), trochlear (IV), and ophthalmic and maxillary branches of trigeminal (V) nerve.
• plexus venosus caroticus internus / internal carotid venous plexus : a venous plexus around the petrosal portion of the internal carotid artery, through which the cavernous sinus communicates with the internal jugular vein
• sinus intercavernosus anterior : the anterior of the 2 sinuses of the dura mater connecting the 2 cavernous sinuses, passing anterior to the infundibulum of the hypophysis.
• sinus intercavernosus posterior : posterior of the 2 sinuses of the dura mater connecting the 2 cavernous sinuses, passing posterior to the infundibulum of the hypophysis.
• intercavernous plexus : a network of venous channels connecting the 2 cavernous sinuses across both the roof and the floor of the pituitary fossa.
• occipital sinus / sinus occipitalis : it begins in right and left branches, the marginal sinuses, and passes upward along the attached margin of the cerebellar falx to end in the confluence of the sinuses
• sinus petrosquamosus / petrosquamous sinus : an inconstant sinus that runs along the petrosquamous fissure, connecting posteriorly with the transverse sinus and anteriorly with the retromandibular vein.
• sinus petrosus inferior / inferior petrosal sinus : arising from the cavernous sinus and running along the line of the petrooccipital synchondrosis to the superior bulb of the internal jugular vein.
• sinus petrosus superior / superior petrosal sinus : arising at the cavernous sinus, passing along the attached margin of the cerebellar tentorium, and draining into the transverse sinus
• sinus rectus / straight sinus : situated in the line of union of the cerebral falx and the cerebellar tentorium, formed by the junction of the great cerebral vein and the inferior sagittal sinus, and commonly ending in the opposite transverse sinus at the confluence of the sinuses
• sinus sagittalis inferior / inferior sagittal or longitudinal sinus : it is small and situated in the posterior half of the lower concave border of the falx cerebri, and it opens into the upper end of the straight sinus
• sinus sagittalis superior / superior sagittal sinus / superior longitudinal sinus : it begins in front of the crista galli and extends backward in the convex border of the falx cerebri. Near the internal occipital protuberance it ends in a variable way in the confluence of the sinuses. It receives the superior cerebral veins, communicates with the lacunae laterales / lateral lacunae / parasinusoidal lacunae, parasinoidal sinuses, or spaces (venous meshworks within the dura mater on either side of the superior sagittal sinus; arachnoidal granulations project into them) of adjacent dura mater, and is partially invaginated by arachnoidal granulations
• sigmoid sinus / sinus sigmoideus (2), continuations of the transverse sinuses; each curves downward from the tentorium cerebelli to become continuous with the superior bulb of the internal jugular vein.
• sphenoparietal sinus / sinus sphenoparietalis / Breschet's sinus (2), each beginning at a meningeal vein next to the apex of the small wing of the sphenoid bone and draining into the anterior part of the cavernous sinus
• sinus transversus durae matris / transverse sinus of dura mater (2) begin in a variable fashion at the confluence of the sinuses near the internal occipital protuberance. Each follows the attached margin of the tentorium cerebelli to the petrous temporal bone, where it becomes the sigmoid sinus. At their origin in the confluence, the right and left sinuses communicate with each other, and with the superior sagittal sinus and the straight sinus.
• plexus basilaris / basilar plexus : a venous plexus of the dura mater situated over the basilar part of the occipital bone and the posterior portion of the body of the sphenoid, extending from the cavernous sinus to the foramen magnum, and communicating with other dural sinuses.
• vena anastomotica inferior / inferior anastomotic vein / Browning's vein : a vein that interconnects the superficial middle cerebral vein and the transverse sinus
• vena anastomotica superior / superior anastomotic vein / Trolard's vein : a vein that interconnects the superficial middle cerebral vein and the superior sagittal sinus
• vena aqueductus cochleae / vein of aqueduct of cochlea / vein of cochlear canaliculus / vena of canaliculi cochleae : a vein along the aqueduct of the cochlea that empties into the superior bulb of the internal jugular vein
• vena aqueductus vestibuli / vein of aqueduct of vestibule : a small vein from the internal ear that passes through the aqueduct of the vestibule and empties into the superior petrosal sinus
• venae nuclei caudati : the veins of the caudate nucleus, located within the corpus striatum.
• vena canalis pterygoidei / vein of pterygoid canal / vidian vein : one of the veins that pass through the pterygoid canal and empty into the pterygoid plexus
• vena choroidea superior / superior choroid vein : the vein that runs along the whole length of the choroid plexus, draining it and the hippocampus, fornix, and corpus callosum; it unites with the superior thalamostriate vein to form the internal cerebral vein
• venae cerebelli / cerebellar veins : the veins on the surface of the cerebellum
• venae inferiores cerebelli / inferior veins of cerebellum : veins that drain the inferior surface of the cerebellum and empty into the transverse, sigmoid, inferior petrosal, and occipital sinuses
• venae superiores cerebelli / superior veins of cerebellum : veins that drain the superior surfaces of the cerebellar hemisphere and empty into the straight sinus and the great cerebral vein or into the transverse and superior petrosal sinuses
• venae inferiores cerebri / inferior cerebral veins / venae cerebri inferiores : rather large superficial cerebral veins that ramify on the base and the inferolateral surface of the brain: those on the inferior surface of the frontal lobe drain into the inferior sagittal sinus and the cavernous sinus; those on the temporal lobe, into the superior petrosal sinus and the transverse sinus; those on the occipital lobe into the straight sinus
• vena uncalis / vein of uncus : a vein that drains the uncus into the ipsilateral inferior cerebral vein.
• venae superiores cerebri / superior cerebral veins / venae cerebri superiores : the 8 to 12 superficial cerebral veins (prefrontal, frontal, parietal, and occipital) that drain the superior, lateral, and medial surfaces of the cerebrum toward the longitudinal cerebral fissure, where they open into the superior sagittal sinus
• vena inferior vermis / inferior vein of vermis / vena vermis inferior: a vein that drains the inferior surface of the cerebellum; it runs backward on the inferior vermis to empty into the straight sinus or one of the sigmoid sinuses
• venae insulares / insular veins : veins that drain the insula and join the deep middle cerebral vein.
• venae columnae vertebralis / veins of the vertebral column : a plexiform venous network extending the entire length of the vertebral column, outside or inside the vertebral canal; the anterior and posterior external and anterior and posterior internal groups freely anastomose and end in the intervertebral veins
• vena comitans nervi hypoglossi / accompanying vein of hypoglossal nerve : a vessel, formed by union of the vena profunda linguae and the vena sublingualis, that accompanies the hypoglossal nerve; it empties into the facial, lingual, or internal jugular vein.
• vena profunda linguae / deep lingual vein : a vein that drains blood from the deep aspect of the tongue and joins the sublingual vein to form the vena comitans of the hypoglossal nerve.
• venae orbitae / veins of orbit : the veins that drain the orbit and its structures, including the superior ophthalmic vein and its tributaries and the inferior ophthalmic vein
• vena ophthalmica inferior / inferior ophthalmic vein : a vein formed by confluence of muscular and ciliary branches, and running backward either to join the superior ophthalmic vein or to open directly into the cavernous sinus; it sends a communicating branch through the inferior orbital fissure to join the pterygoid venous plexus
• vena ophthalmica superior / superior ophthalmic vein : the vein that begins at the medial angle of the eyelid, where it communicates with the frontal, supraorbital, and angular veins; it follows the distribution of the ophthalmic artery, and may be joined by the inferior ophthalmic vein at the superior orbital fissure before opening into the cavernous sinus
• vena ophthalmomeningea / ophthalmomeningeal vein : a small inferior meningeal vein that opens usually into the superior ophthalmic vein, or occasionally into the superior petrosal sinus
• venae ethmoidales / ethmoidal veins : veins that follow the anterior and posterior ethmoidal arteries, emerge from the ethmoidal foramina, and empty into the superior ophthalmic vein
• vena lacrimalis / lacrimal vein : the vein that drains blood from the lacrimal gland into the superior ophthalmic vein
• venae palpebrales / palpebral veins : small branches from the eyelids that open into the superior ophthalmic vein
• vena centralis retinae / central vein of retina : the vein that is formed by union of the retinal veins; it passes out of the eyeball in the optic nerve to empty into the superior ophthalmic vein
• venula macularis inferior / inferior macular venule : the inferior venule draining blood from the macula retinae.
• venula macularis media / medial macular venule / venula retinae medialis : a small branch draining blood from the central region of the retina to the central retinal vein
• venula macularis superior / superior macular venule : the superior venule draining blood from the macula retinae.
• venula nasalis retinae inferior / inferior nasal venule of retina : a small vein returning blood from the inferior nasal region of the retina to the central vein.
• venula nasalis retinae superior / superior nasal venule of retina : a small vein returning blood from the superior nasal region of the retina to the central vein.
• venula temporalis retinae inferior / inferior temporal venule of retina : a small vein returning blood from the inferior temporal region of the retina to the central vein.
• venula temporalis retinae superior / superior temporal venule of retina : a small vein returning blood from the superior temporal region of the retina to the central vein.
• Kuhnt's postcentral vein : a vein branching from the vena centralis retina, extending posteriorly from the center of the optic nerve, and draining into the canalis opticus.
• venae ciliares / ciliary veins : veins that arise inside the eyeball by branches from the ciliary muscle and drain into the superior ophthalmic vein. The anterior ciliary veins follow the anterior ciliary arteries, and receive branches from the sinus venosus, sclerae, the episcleral veins, and the tunica conjunctiva bulbi. The posterior ciliary veins follow the posterior ciliary arteries and empty also into the inferior ophthalmic vein
• venae episclerales / episcleral veins : the veins that ring the cornea and drain into the vorticose and ciliary veins
• venae sclerales / scleral veins : tributaries of the anterior ciliary veins that drain the sclera.
• venae conjunctivales / conjunctival veins : small veins that drain blood from the conjunctiva to the superior ophthalmic vein
• aqueous veins : microscopic, blood vessel–like pathways on the surface of the eye, containing aqueous humor or diluted blood and connecting the sinus venosus sclerae (Schlemm's canal) with conjunctival or subconjunctival veins.
• Leber's or Hovius' plexus : a venous plexus in the ciliary region connected with the sinus venosus sclerae
• venae vorticosae / vorticose veins / posterior ciliary veins / venae choroideae oculi : 4 veins that pierce the sclera and carry blood from the choroid to the superior ophthalmic vein
• vena nasofrontalis / nasofrontal vein : a vein that begins at the supraorbital vein, enters the orbit, and joins the superior ophthalmic vein.
• vena magna cerebri / great cerebral vein / vena cerebri magna : a short median trunk formed by union of the two internal cerebral veins, which curves around the splenium of the corpus callosum and empties into, or is continued as, the straight sinus
• venae directae laterales / lateral direct veins :  veins of the lateral ventricle, draining into the great cerebral vein
• vena dorsalis corporis callosi / dorsal vein of corpus callosum : a vein that drains the superior surface of the corpus callosum into the great cerebral vein
• vena medialis ventriculi lateralis / medial vein of lateral ventricle : a vein passing through the medial wall of the lateral ventricle to drain the parietal and occipital lobes into the internal cerebral or great cerebral vein
• vena superior vermis / superior vein of vermis / vena vermis superior : a vein that drains the superior surface of the cerebellum; it runs forward and medially across the superior vermis to empty into the straight sinus or the great cerebral vein
• venae internae cerebri / internal cerebral veins / venae cerebri internae : 2 veins that arise at the interventricular foramen by the union on the thalamostriate and the choroid veins; they pass backward through the tela choroidea, collecting blood from the basal nuclei, and unite at the splenium of the corpus callosum to form the great cerebral vein
• vena basalis / basal vein / Rosenthal's vein : a vein that arises at the anterior perforated substance, passes backward and around the cerebral peduncle, and empties into the internal cerebral vein
• vena gyri olfactorii / vein of olfactory gyrus : a vein that drains the olfactory gyrus into the basal vein
• venae anteriores cerebri / anterior cerebral veins / venae cerebri anteriores : veins that accompany the anterior cerebral artery and join the basal vein
• vena media profunda cerebri / deep middle cerebral vein : the vein that accompanies the middle cerebral artery in the floor of the lateral sulcus, and joins the basal vein
• venae pedunculares / peduncular veins : veins that drain the cerebral peduncle into the basal vein
• vena choroidea inferior / inferior choroid vein : a vein that drains the inferior choroid plexus into the basal vein
• vena ventricularis inferior / inferior ventricular vein : a vein that drains the temporal lobe into the basal vein.
• venae profundae cerebri / deep cerebral veins / venae cerebri profundae : the veins that drain the inner regions of the cerebral hemispheres, consisting of the basal veins, the great cerebral veins, the veins of the encephalic trunk, and their tributaries
• venae thalamostriatae inferiores / inferior thalamostriate veins / striate veins / venae striatae : veins that pass through the anterior perforate substance and join the deep middle cerebral and anterior cerebral veins to form the basal vein
• vena thalamostriata superior / superior thalamostriate vein / terminal vein / vena terminalis : a vein that collects blood from the corpus striatum and thalamus, and joins with the choroid vein to form the internal cerebral vein
• vena anterior septi pellucidi / anterior vein of septum pellucidum / vena septi pellucidi anterior : a vein that drains the anterior septum pellucidum into the superior thalamostriate vein
• vena lateralis ventriculi lateralis / lateral vein of lateral ventricle : a vein passing through the lateral wall of the lateral ventricle to drain the temporal and parietal lobes into the superior thalamostriate vein
• vena posterior septi pellucidi / posterior vein of septum pellucidum / vena septi pellucidi posterior : a vein that drains the posterior septum pellucidum into the superior thalamostriate vein
• venae trunci encephalici / veins of encephalic trunk / venae mesencephalicae : the veins that drain the brain stem and empty into the basal or great cerebral vein
• venae pontis / veins of pons : the veins that drain the pons, which empty into the basal vein, cerebellar veins, petrosal or venous sinuses, or venous plexus of the foramen ovale
• vena pontomesencephalica anterior / anterior pontomesencephalic vein : a vein lying on the superior and anterior aspects of the pons in the midline of the interpeduncular fossa, communicating superiorly with the basal vein and inferiorly with the petrosal vein
• venae medullae oblongatae / veins of medulla oblongata : the veins that drain the medulla oblongata, which empty into the veins of the spinal cord, the adjacent dural venous sinuses, or along the last 4 cranial nerves to the inferior petrosal sinus or superior bulb of the jugular vein.
• vena recessus lateralis ventriculi quarti / vein of lateral recess of fourth ventricle : a small vein arising in the tonsil of the cerebellum, passing the lateral recess of the fourth ventricle, and terminating in the petrosal vein.
• vena posterior corporis callosi / posterior vein of corpus callosum : a vein that drains the posterior surface of the corpus callosum into the great cerebral vein
• vena precentralis cerebelli / precentral vein of cerebellum : a vein arising in the precentral cerebellar fissure and passing anterior and superior to the culmen, terminating in the great cerebral vein.
• vena emissaria / emissary vein / emissarium / emissary : one of the small, valveless veins that pass through foramina of the skull, connecting the dural venous sinuses with scalp veins or with deep veins below the base of the skull
• vena emissaria condylaris / vena emissaria condyloidea / condylar emissary vein / emissarium condyloideum : a small vein running through the condylar canal of the skull, connecting the sigmoid sinus with the vertebral or the internal jugular vein
• vena emissaria occipitalis / occipital emissary vein / emissarium occipitale : an occasional small vein running through a minute foramen in the occipital protuberance of the skull and connecting the confluence of the sinuses with the occipital vein
• venae encephali / cerebral veins / venae cerebri : veins that drain the surfaces or inner regions of the cerebral hemispheres; they are divided into superficial and deep groups
• venae occipitales / occipital veins : a group of superior cerebral veins, superficial cerebral veins that drain the cortex of the occipital lobe.
• venae parietales / parietal veins : a group of superior cerebral veins, superficial cerebral veins that drain the cortex of the parietal lobe.
• venae superficiales cerebri / superficial cerebral veins / venae cerebri superficiales : the veins that drain the surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres, comprising the superior, inferior, and middle superficial cerebral veins and their tributaries
• vena occipitalis / occipital vein : a vein in the scalp that follows the distribution of the occipital artery and opens under the trapezius muscle into the suboccipital venous plexus; it may continue with the occipital artery and end in the internal jugular vein.
• vena facialis / facial vein : the vein that begins at the medial angle of the eye as the angular vein, descends behind the facial artery, and usually ends in the internal jugular vein; formerly called the anterior facial vein or vena facialis anterior, this vessel sometimes joins the retromandibular vein to form a common trunk previously known as the common facial vein or vena facialis communis
• vena angularis / angular vein : a short vein between the eye and the root of the nose; it is formed by union of the supratrochlear and supraorbital veins and continues inferiorly as the facial vein
• venae palpebrales superiores / superior palpebral veins : branches that drain the blood from the upper eyelid to the angular vein
• vena supraorbitalis / supraorbital vein : the vein that passes down the forehead lateral to the supratrochlear vein, joining it at the root of the nose to form the angular vein
• venae supratrochleares / supratrochlear veins / frontal veins : 2 veins, each beginning in a venous plexus high up on the forehead and descending to the root of the nose, where it joins with the supraorbital to form the angular vein
• venae nasales externae / external nasal veins : small ascending branches from the nose that open into the angular and facial veins.
• venae labiales inferiores / inferior labial veins : veins that drain the region of the lower lip into the facial vein
• vena labialis superior / superior labial vein : the vein that drains blood from the region of the upper lip into the facial vein
• venae massetericae / masseteric veins : veins from the masseter muscle that empty into the facial vein
• vena palatina externa / external palatine vein / vena palatina : the vein that drains blood from the tonsils and the soft palate into the facial vein
• venae palpebrales inferiores / inferior palpebral veins : branches that drain the blood from the lower eyelid into the facial vein
• vena profunda faciei / deep facial vein / vena faciei profunda / vena profunda facialis : a vein draining from the pterygoid plexus to the facial vein
• vena submentalis / submental vein : a vein that follows the submental artery and opens into the facial vein
• plexus pterygoideus / pterygoid plexus / plexus venosus pterygoideus : a network of veins corresponding to the second and third parts of the maxillary artery; situated on the lateral surface of the medial pterygoid muscle and on both surfaces of the lateral pterygoid muscle, and draining into the facial vein
• venae temporales profundae / deep temporal veins : veins that drain the deep portions of the temporal muscle and empty into the pterygoid plexus
• venae frontales / frontal veins : a group of superior cerebral veins, superficial cerebral veins that drain the cortex of the frontal lobe
• venae labyrinthi / venae labyrinthinae / veins of labyrinth / internal auditory veins / labyrinthine veins : several small veins that pass through the internal acoustic meatus from the cochlea into the inferior petrosal or the transverse sinus
• venae vestibulares / vestibular veins : branches draining blood from the vestibule into the labyrinthine veins
• vena spiralis modioli / spiral vein of modiolus : a small vein in the spiral modiolus, a tributary of the labyrinthine veins
• vena media superficialis cerebri / sylvian vein / vein of sylvian fossa / superficial middle cerebral vein : either of the two veins, one in each hemisphere, that drain the lateral surface of the cerebrum, follow the lateral cerebral fissure, and empty into the cavernous sinus; they are fed by the inferior and superior anastomotic veins
• vena lingualis / lingual vein : the deep vein that follows the distribution of the lingual artery and empties into the internal jugular vein
• venae meningeae / meningeal veins : the venae comitantes of the meningeal arteries, which drain the dura mater, communicate with the lateral lacunae, and empty into the regional sinuses and veins
• venae meningeae mediae / middle meningeal veins : the venae comitantes of the middle meningeal artery, which end in the pterygoid venous plexus
• vena petrosa / petrosal vein : a short trunk arising from the union of 4 or 5 cerebellar and pontine veins opposite the middle cerebellar peduncle and terminating in the superior petrosal sinus
• venae pharyngeae / venae pharyngeales / pharyngeal veins : veins that drain the pharyngeal plexus and empty into the internal jugular vein
• plexus pharyngeus / pharyngeal plexus / plexus pharyngealis : a venous plexus posterolateral to the pharynx, formed by the pharyngeal veins, communicating with the pterygoid venous plexus, and draining into the internal jugular vein
• plexus venosus foraminis ovalis / venous plexus of foramen ovale / rete foraminis ovalis : a venous plexus that connects the cavernous sinus through the foramen ovale with the pterygoid plexus and the pharyngeal plexus
• venae portales hypophysiales / hypophyseoportal veins / portal veins of hypophysis : a system of venules connecting capillaries in the hypothalamus with sinusoidal capillaries in the anterior lobe of the hypophysis
• venae prefrontales / prefrontal veins : a group of superior cerebral veins, superficial cerebral veins that drain the prefrontal area of the cerebral cortex
• vena sternocleidomastoidea / sternocleidomastoid vein : a vein that follows the course of the homonymous artery and opens into the internal jugular vein
• venae thyroideae mediae / middle thyroid veins : veins that drain blood from the thyroid gland into the internal jugular vein
• vena thyroidea superior / superior thyroid vein : a vein arising from the upper part of the thyroid gland on either side, opening into the internal jugular vein, occasionally in common with the facial vein.
• vena laryngea superior / superior laryngeal vein : a vein that drains blood from the larynx into the superior thyroid vein
• vena jugularis externa / external jugular vein (r&l) : the vein that begins in the parotid gland behind the angle of the jaw by union of the retromandibular and the posterior auricular vein, passes down the neck, and opens into the subclavian, the internal jugular, or the brachiocephalic vein
• vena suprascapularis / suprascapular vein / transverse vein of scapula : the vein that accompanies the homonymous artery (sometimes as 2 veins that unite), opening usually into the external jugular, or occasionally into the subclavian vein
• vena retromandibularis / retromandibular vein / vena facialis posterior : the vein that is formed in the upper part of the parotid gland behind the neck of the mandible by union of the maxillary and superficial temporal veins; it passes downward through the gland, communicates with the facial vein, and emerging from the gland joins with the posterior auricular vein to form the external jugular vein
• venae articulares / articular veins / temporomandibular articular veins : small vessels that drain the plexus around the temporomandibular articulation into the retromandibular vein
• venae maxillares / maxillary veins : veins from the pterygoid plexus, usually forming a single short trunk, passing back and uniting with the superficial temporal vein in the parotid gland to form the retromandibular vein
• venae temporales superficiales / superficial temporal veins : veins that drain the lateral part of the scalp in the frontal and parietal regions, the tributaries forming a single superficial temporal vein in front of the ear, just above the zygoma. This descending vein receives the middle temporal and transverse facial veins and, entering the parotid gland, unites with the maxillary vein deep to the neck of the mandible to form the retromandibular vein.
• vena emissaria parietalis / parietal emissary vein / emissarium parietale : a small vein passing through the parietal foramen of the skull and connecting the superior sagittal sinus with the superficial temporal veins
• vena temporalis media / middle temporal vein : the vein that arises in the substance of the temporal muscle and passes down under the fascia to the zygoma, where it breaks through to join the superficial temporal vein
• venae auriculares anteriores / anterior auricular veins : branches from the anterior part of the pinna that enter the superficial temporal vein
• venae parotideae / parotid veins / posterior parotid veins : small veins from the parotid gland that open into the superficial temporal vein
• vena auricularis posterior / posterior auricular vein : a vein that begins in a plexus on the side of the head, passes down behind the pinna, and joins with the retromandibular vein to form the external jugular vein
• vena emissaria mastoidea / mastoid emissary vein / emissarium mastoideum : a small vein passing through the mastoid foramen of the skull and connecting the sigmoid sinus with the occipital or the posterior auricular vein
• vena transversa faciei / transverse facial vein / vena transversa facialis : a vein that passes backward with the transverse facial artery just below the zygomatic arch to join the retromandibular vein
• venae tympanicae / tympanic veins : small veins from the tympanic cavity that pass through the petrotympanic fissure, open into the plexus around the temporomandibular articulation, and finally drain into the retromandibular vein.
• vena stylomastoidea / stylomastoid vein : a vein following the stylomastoid artery and emptying into the retromandibular vein.
• vena jugularis anterior / anterior jugular vein : a vein that arises under the chin, passes down the neck, and opens into the external jugular or the subclavian vein or into the jugular venous arch
• vena mediana colli : median vein of neck: a vein sometimes formed when the anterior jugular veins unite as they pass down the neck
• vena vertebralis / vertebral vein : a vein that arises from the suboccipital venous plexus, passes with the vertebral artery through the foramina of the transverse processes of the upper six cervical vertebrae, and opens into the brachiocephalic vein
• plexus venosus suboccipitalis / suboccipital venous plexus : that part of the external vertebral plexus which lies on and in the suboccipital triangle, receives the occipital veins of the scalp, and drains into the vertebral vein.
• plexus venosus canalis hypoglossi / venous plexus of hypoglossal canal / rete canalis hypoglossi / Trolard's plexus : a venous plexus surrounding the hypoglossal nerve in its canal, and connecting the occipital sinus with the vertebral vein and with the longitudinal vertebral venous sinuses
• vena vertebralis accessoria / accessory vertebral vein : a vein that sometimes arises from a plexus formed around the vertebral artery by the vertebral vein, descends with the vertebral vein, and emerges through the transverse foramen of the seventh cervical vertebra to empty into the brachiocephalic vein
• superficial vertebral veins / external veins of vertebral column : the veins of the external vertebral plexuses
• plexus venosus vertebralis externus anterior / anterior external vertebral venous plexus : the venous plexus formed by the anterior external group of veins of the vertebral column that lies on the anterior aspects of the vertebral bodies. See also venae spinales anteriores
• plexus venosus vertebralis externus posterior / posterior external vertebral venous plexus : the venous plexus formed by the posterior external group of veins of the vertebral column that lie on the posterior aspects of the laminae and around the spinous, articular, and transverse processes of the vertebrae. See also venae spinales posteriores.
• plexus venosus vertebralis internus anterior / anterior internal vertebral venous plexus : the venous plexus formed by the anterior internal group of veins of the vertebral column that lies on the posterior aspects of the vertebral bodies and intervertebral disks, on either side of the posterior longitudinal ligament. See also venae spinales anteriores.
• plexus venosus vertebralis internus posterior / posterior internal vertebral venous plexus : the venous plexus formed by the posterior internal group of veins of the vertebral column that lie on either side of the midline in front of the vertebral arches and ligamenta flava. See also venae spinales posteriores.
• vesalian vein : an emissary vein connecting the cavernous sinus with the pterygoid venous plexus, sometimes passing through an opening in the great wing of the sphenoid bone
• vena vertebralis anterior / anterior vertebral vein : a small vein accompanying the ascending cervical artery; it arises in a venous plexus adjacent to the more cranial cervical transverse processes, and descends to end in the vertebral vein.
• venae membri superioris / veins of upper limb : veins that drain the arm, forearm, and hand, divided into superficial veins (those in the superficial fascia) and deep veins (those that accompany arteries); there are frequent anastomoses between the two groups
• venae profundae membri superioris / deep veins of upper limb : veins that drain the upper limb, found accompanying homonymous arteries, and anastomosing freely with the superficial veins; they include the brachial, ulnar, and radial veins, and their tributaries, all of which ultimately drain into the axillary vein.
• venae superficiales membri superioris / superficial veins of upper limb : veins that drain the upper limb, found immediately beneath the skin, and anastomosing freely with the deep veins; they include the cephalic, basilic, and median cubital and antebrachial veins, and their tributaries, all of which ultimately drain into the axillary vein.
• vena cephalica / cephalic vein : the superficial vein that arises from the radial side of the dorsal rete of the hand, and winds anteriorly to pass along the anterior border of the brachioradialis muscle; above the elbow it ascends along the lateral border of the biceps muscle and the pectoral border of the deltoid muscle, and opens into the axillary vein
• venae dorsales linguae / dorsal lingual veins : veins that unite with a small vena comitans of the lingual artery and join the main lingual trunk
• vena sublingualis / sublingual vein : a vein that follows the sublingual artery and opens into the lingual vein.
• vena intermedia cephalica / vena mediana cephalica : median cephalic vein: a vein sometimes present as the lateral branch, ending in the cephalic vein, formed by bifurcation of the median antebrachial vein
• vena cephalica accessoria / accessory cephalic vein : a vein arising from the dorsal rete of the hand, passing up the forearm to join the cephalic vein just above the elbow
• vena brachiocephalica / brachiocephalic vein / innominate vein : either of the two veins that drain blood from the head, neck, and upper extremities, and unite to form the superior vena cava. Each is formed at the root of the neck by union of the ipsilateral internal jugular and subclavian veins. The right vein (v. brachiocephalica dextra) passes almost vertically downward in front of the brachiocephalic artery, and the left vein (v. brachiocephalica sinistra) passes from left to right behind the upper part of the sternum. Each vein receives the vertebral, deep cervical, deep thyroid, and internal thoracic veins. The left vein also receives intercostal, thymic, tracheal, esophageal, phrenic, mediastinal, and pericardiac branches, as well as the thoracic duct; and the right vein receives the right lymphatic duct
• vena intercostalis superior sinistra / left superior intercostal vein : the common trunk formed by union of the second, third, and sometimes fourth posterior intercostal veins, which crosses the arch of the aorta and joins the left brachiocephalic vein
• vena cervicalis profunda / deep cervical vein : a vein that arises from a plexus in the suboccipital triangle, follows the deep cervical artery down the neck, and empties into the vertebral or the brachiocephalic vein
• venae mediastinales / mediastinal veins : numerous small branches that drain blood from the anterior mediastinum into the brachiocephalic vein, azygos vein, or the superior vena cava.
• venae pericardiacophrenicae / pericardiacophrenic veins : small veins that drain blood from the pericardium and diaphragm into the left brachiocephalic vein.
• venae thymicae / thymic veins : small branches from the thymus gland that open into the left brachiocephalic vein.
• vena thyroidea ima : an occasional vein formed by high junction of the right and left inferior thyroid veins, and usually emptying into the left brachiocephalic vein.
• vena thyroidea inferioris / inferior thyroid vein : either of two veins, left and right, that drain the thyroid plexus into the left and right brachiocephalic veins; occasionally they may unite into a common trunk to empty, usually, into the left brachiocephalic vein.
• vena laryngea inferior / inferior laryngeal vein : a vein draining blood from the larynx into the inferior thyroid vein
• venae tracheales / tracheal veins : small branches that drain blood from the trachea into the brachiocephalic vein.
• venae thoracicae internae / internal thoracic veins / internal mammary veins : 2 veins formed by junction of the venae comitantes of the internal thoracic artery of either side; each continues along the artery to open into the brachiocephalic veins
• venae intercostales anteriores / anterior intercostal veins : the twelve paired venae comitantes of the anterior thoracic arteries, which drain into the internal thoracic veins
• venae epigastricae superiores / superior epigastric veins : the venae comitantes of the superior epigastric artery, which open into the internal thoracic vein
• vena subclavia / subclavian vein : the vein that continues the axillary as the main venous stem of the upper member, follows the subclavian artery, and joins with the internal jugular vein to form the brachiocephalic vein.
• venae pectorales / pectoral veins : collective term for branches of the subclavian vein that drain the pectoral region
• vena scapularis dorsalis / dorsal scapular vein : a branch occasionally seen contributing to the subclavian vein
• vena thoracoacromialis / thoracoacromial vein : the vein that follows the homonymous artery and opens into the subclavian vein
• venae transversae cervicis / venae transversae colli / transverse cervical veins : veins that follow the transverse artery of the neck and open into the subclavian vein.
• vena axillaris / axillary vein (r & l) :  the venous trunk of the upper member; it begins at the lower border of the teres major muscle by junction of the basilic and brachial veins, and at the lateral border of the first rib is continuous with the subclavian vein
• venae brachiales / brachial veins : the venae comitantes of the brachial artery, which join with the basilic vein to form the axillary vein.
• venae radiales / radial veins : the venae comitantes of the radial artery, which open into the brachial veins
• venae ulnares / ulnar veins : the venae comitantes of the ulnar artery, which unite with the radial veins at the elbow to form the brachial veins
• vena basilica / basilic vein (r & l) : the superficial vein that arises from the ulnar side of the dorsal rete of the hand, passes up the forearm, and joins with the brachial veins to form the axillary vein
• vena intermedia basilica / median basilic vein / vena mediana basilica : a vein sometimes present as the medial branch, ending in the basilic vein, of a bifurcation of the median antebrachial vein
• venae costoaxillares / costoaxillary veins / external mammary veins : veins that arise from the areolar venous plexus, anastomose with the upper 6 ot 7 posterior intercostal veins, and empty into the axillary vein
• vena thoracica lateralis / lateral thoracic vein / vena thoracalis lateralis : a large vein accompanying the lateral thoracic artery and draining into the axillary vein
• plexus venosus areolaris / areolar venous plexus / plexus venosus mamillae : a venous plexus in the areola around the nipple, formed by branches of the internal thoracic veins and draining into the lateral thoracic vein
• venae intercapitulares manus / intercapitular veins of hand / venae intercapitales manus : veins at the clefts of the finger which pass between the heads of the metacarpal bones and establish communication between the dorsal and the palmar venous system of the hand
• vena mediana cubiti / median cubital vein / median vein of elbow / vena intermedia cubiti : the large connecting branch that arises from the cephalic vein below the elbow and passes obliquely upward over the cubital fossa to join the basilic vein
• vena mediana antebrachii / median antebrachial vein / median vein of forearm / vena intermedia antebrachii : a vein that arises from a palmar venous plexus and passes up the forearm between the cephalic and the basilic veins to the elbow, where it either joins one of these, bifurcates to join both, or joins the median cubital vein
• venae interosseae anteriores / anterior interosseous veins : the veins accompanying the anterior interosseous artery, which join the ulnar veins near the elbow
• venae interosseae posteriores / posterior interosseous veins : the veins accompanying the posterior interosseous artery, which join the ulnar veins near the elbow
• venae metacarpales dorsales / dorsal metacarpal veins / venae metacarpeae dorsales : veins that arise from the union of dorsal veins of adjacent fingers and pass proximally to join in forming the dorsal venous rete of the hand
• venae metacarpales palmares / palmar metacarpal veins / venae metacarpeae palmares : the venae comitantes of the palmar metacarpal arteries, which open into the deep palmar venous arch
• venae basivertebrales / basivertebral veins : venous sinuses in the cancellous tissue of the bodies of the vertebrae, which communicate with the plexus of veins on the anterior surface of the vertebrae and with the anterior internal vertebral plexus
• venae diploicae / diploic veins : veins of the skull, including the frontal, occipital, anterior temporal, and posterior temporal diploic veins, which form sinuses in the cancellous tissue between the laminae of the cranial bones. They send branches to the external and the internal lamina, the periosteum, and the dura mater, and empty in part inside and in part outside the skull.
• vena diploica frontalis / frontal diploic vein : a vein that drains the frontal bone, emptying externally into the supraorbital vein or internally into the superior sagittal sinus
• vena diploica occipitalis / occipital diploic vein : the largest of the diploic veins, which drains blood from the occipital bone and empties into the occipital vein or the transverse sinus.
• vena diploica temporalis anterior / anterior temporal diploic vein : a vein that drains the lateral portion of the frontal and the anterior part of the parietal bone, opening internally into the sphenoparietal sinus and externally into a deep temporal vein.
• vena diploica temporalis posterior / posterior temporal diploic vein : a vein that drains the parietal bone and empties into the transverse sinus.
• vena intervertebralis / intervertebral vein : any one of the veins that drain the vertebral plexuses, passing out through the intervertebral foramina and emptying into the regional veins: in the neck, into the vertebral; in the thorax, the intercostal; in the abdomen, the lumbar; and in the pelvis, the lateral sacral veins.
• vena azygos / azygos vein : an intercepting trunk for the right intercostal veins as well as a connecting branch between the superior and inferior venae cavae: it arises from the ascending lumbar vein, passes up in the posterior mediastinum to the level of the fourth thoracic vertebra, where it arches over the root of the right lung (arcus venae azygou / arch of azygos vein), and empties into the superior vena cava.
• vena hemiazygos / hemiazygos vein : an intercepting trunk for the lower left posterior intercostal veins; it arises from the ascending lumbar vein, passes up on the left side of the vertebrae to the eighth thoracic vertebra, where it may receive the accessory branch, and crosses over the vertebral column to open into the azygos vein
• venae oesophageales / esophageal veins / venae esophageae / venae esophageales : small veins that drain blood from the esophagus into the hemiazygos and azygos veins, or into the left brachiocephalic vein
• venae phrenicae superiores / superior phrenic veins : small veins on the superior surface of the diaphragm that drain into the azygos and hemiazygos veins
• vena subcostalis / subcostal vein : the vena comitans of the subcostal artery on the left or right side; it joins the ascending lumbar vein to form the azygos vein on the right or the hemiazygos vein on the left.
• vena hemiazygos accessoria / accessory hemiazygos vein : the descending intercepting trunk for the upper, often the fourth through the eighth, left posterior intercostal veins. It lies on the left side and at the eighth thoracic vertebra joins the hemiazygos vein or crosses to the right side to join the azygos vein directly; above, it may communicate with the left superior intercostal vein
• venae intercostales posteriores / posterior intercostal veins : the veins that accompany the corresponding intercostal arteries and drain the intercostal spaces posteriorly; the first ends in the brachiocephalic or the vertebral vein, the second and third join the superior intercostal vein, and the fourth to eleventh join the azygos vein on the right and the hemiazygos veins on the left
• ramus spinalis venae intercostalis posterioris / spinal branch of posterior intercostal vein : a vessel, the vena comitans of the arterial spinal branch, that emerges from the vertebral canal and contributes to the dorsal branch of each posterior intercostal vein.
• vena intercostalis superior dextra / right superior intercostal vein : a common trunk formed by union of the second, third, and sometimes fourth posterior intercostal veins, which drains into the azygos vein
• vena intercostalis suprema / highest intercostal vein : the first posterior intercostal vein of either side, which passes over the apex of the lung and ends in the brachiocephalic, vertebral, or superior intercostal vein
• venae musculophrenicae / musculophrenic veins : the venae comitantes of the musculophrenic artery, draining blood from parts of the diaphragm and from the wall of the thorax and abdomen.
• venae pericardiacae / pericardial veins / venae pericardiales / pericardiac veins : numerous small branches that drain blood from the pericardium into the brachiocephalic, inferior thyroid and azygos veins, and the superior vena cava
• venae spinales anteriores / anterior spinal veins : a group of longitudinal veins forming a plexus on the dorsal surface of the spinal cord, comprising a median vein lying anterior to the anterior median fissure and two anterolateral veins lying slightly posterior to the ventral nerve roots; they drain the anterior spinal cord. See also plexus venosus vertebralis externus anterior and plexus venosus vertebralis internus anterior.
• venae spinales posteriores / posterior spinal veins : a group of longitudinal, usually discontinuous, veins forming a plexus on the posterior surface of the spinal cord, comprising a median vein lying behind the posterior median septum and two posterolateral veins lying posterior to the dorsal nerve roots; they drain the posterior spinal cord. See also plexus venosus vertebralis externus posterior and plexus venosus vertebralis internus posterior
• plexus basilaris / basilar plexus : a venous plexus of the dura mater situated over the basilar part of the occipital bone and the posterior portion of the body of the sphenoid, extending from the cavernous sinus to the foramen magnum, and communicating with other dural sinuses.
• inferior vena cava (IVC) / vena cava inferior : the venous trunk for the lower extremities and for the pelvic and abdominal viscera; it begins at the level of the fifth lumbar vertebra by union of the common iliac veins, passes upward on the right of the aorta, and empties into the right atrium of the heart.
• venae hepaticae / hepatic veins :  several veins that receive blood from the central veins of the liver. The upper group usually consists of 2 or 3 large veins, and the lower group consists of six to twenty small veins; all form successively larger vessels (right, left, and middle hepatic veins) that ultimately open into the inferior vena cava on the posterior aspect of the liver
• venae hepaticae dextrae / right hepatic veins : the larger veins that drain the right side of the liver and ultimately empty into the inferior vena cava
• venae hepaticae intermediae / intermediate hepatic veins / middle hepatic veins and venae hepaticae mediae : the larger veins that drain the middle part of the liver and ultimately empty into the inferior vena cava
• venae hepaticae sinistrae / left hepatic veins : the larger veins that drain the left side of the liver and ultimately empty into the inferior vena cava
• sublobular veins : tributaries of the hepatic veins that receive the central veins of hepatic lobules.
• venae centrales hepatis / central veins of liver / central veins of hepatic lobules / Krukenberg's veins : veins in the middle of the hepatic lobules, draining into the hepatic vein
• hepatic portal circulation
• venae interlobulares hepatis / interlobular veins of liver : the veins that arise as tributaries of the portal vein between the hepatic lobules
• Retzius' veins : inconstant venous anastomoses that connect veins from the walls of the intestine to the tributaries of the inferior vena cava rather than to the superior mesenteric vein
• vena portae hepatis / vena portalis hepatis / portal vein of liver / hepatic portal vein / portal vein : a short thick trunk formed by union of the superior mesenteric and the splenic veins behind the neck of the pancreas; it passes upward to the right end of the porta hepatis, where it divides into successively smaller branches, following the branches of the hepatic artery, until it forms a capillary-like system of sinusoids that permeates the entire substance of the liver
• venae advehentes : channels in the early embryo that convey blood to the sinusoids of the liver and later join to form the portal vein
• venae revehentes / revehent veins : channels in the early embryo that convey blood from the sinusoids of the liver to the sinus venosus and later become the hepatic veins
• vena cystica / cystic vein : a small vein that returns the blood from the gallbladder to the right branch of the portal vein, within the substance of the liver
• venae paraumbilicales / paraumbilical or parumbilical veins / veins of Sappey : veins that communicate with the portal vein and anastomose with the superior and inferior epigastric and the superior vesical veins in the region of the umbilicus. They form a part of the collateral circulation of the portal vein in the event of hepatic obstruction
• vena splenica / splenic vein / vena lienalis : the vein formed by union of several branches at the hilum of the spleen, passing from left to right to the neck of the pancreas, where it joins the superior mesenteric vein to form the portal vein
• venae gastricae breves / short gastric veins : small vessels draining the left portion of the greater curvature of the stomach and emptying into the splenic vein
• vena gastroomentalis sinistra / left gastroomental vein / left epiploic vein / left gastroepiploic vein / vena epiploica sinistra / vena gastroepiploica sinistra : a vein that follows the distribution of its homonymous artery and empties into the splenic vein
• gastric vein
• vena gastrica dextra / right gastric vein : the vena comitans of the right gastric artery, emptying into the portal vein
• vena prepylorica / prepyloric vein / Mayo's vein : a vein that accompanies the prepyloric artery, passing upward over the anterior surface of the junction between the pylorus and the duodenum and emptying into the right gastric vein
• vena gastrica sinistra / left gastric vein : the vena comitans of the left gastric artery, emptying into the portal vei
• vena mesenterica superior / superior mesenteric vein : a vein that follows the distribution of its homonymous artery and joins with the splenic vein to form the hepatic portal vein
• vena gastroomentalis dextra / right gastroomental vein / right epiploic vein / right gastroepiploic vein / epiploica dextra / vena gastroepiploica dextra : a vein that follows the distribution of its homonymous artery and empties into the superior mesenteric vein
• venae ileales / ileal veins : veins draining blood from the ileum into the superior mesenteric vein
• vena ileocolica / ileocolic vein : a vein that follows the distribution of its homonymous artery and empties into the vena mesenterica superiorx
• venae jejunales / jejunal veins : veins draining blood from the jejunum into the superior mesenteric vein
• venae pancreaticae / pancreatic veins : numerous branches from the pancreas which open into the splenic and the superior mesenteric veins
• venae pancreaticoduodenales / pancreaticoduodenal veins : 4 veins that drain blood from the pancreas and duodenum, closely following the homonymous arteries. A superior and an inferior vein originate from both an anterior and a posterior venous arcade. The anterior superior vein joins the right gastroomental vein; the posterior superior vein joins the portal vein. The anterior and posterior inferior veins join, sometimes as one trunk and other times joining the uppermost jejunal vein or the superior mesenteric vein
• vena mesenterica inferior / inferior mesenteric vein : a vein that follows the distribution of its homonymous artery and empties into the splenic vein
• vena appendicularis / appendicular vein : the vena comitans of the appendicular artery; it unites with the anterior and posterior cecal veins to form the ileocolic vein
• vena colica dextra / right colic vein : a vein that follows the distribution of the right colic artery and empties into the superior mesenteric vein
• vena colica media / middle colic vein / intermediate colic vein / vena colica intermedia : a vein that follows the distribution of the middle colic artery and empties into the superior mesenteric vein
• vena colica sinistra / left colic vein : a vein that follows the left colic artery and opens into the inferior mesenteric vein
• vena rectalis superior / superior rectal vein : the vein that drains the upper part of the rectal plexus into the inferior mesenteric vein and thus establishes connection between the portal system and the systemic circulation.
• venae rectales mediae / middle rectal veins : veins that drain the rectal plexus and empty into the internal iliac and superior rectal veins
• venae sigmoideae / sigmoid veins : veins from the sigmoid colon that empty into the inferior mesenteric vein.
• venae renales / venae renis / renal veins : the veins within the kidney, including the interlobular, arcuate, and interlobular veins, the venulae stellatae, and the venulae rectae
• venae interlobares renis / interlobar veins of kidney : veins that drain the venous arcades of the kidney, pass down between the pyramids, and unite to form the renal vein.
• venae arcuatae renis / arcuate veins of kidney / venae arciformes renis : a series of complete arches across the bases of the pyramids of the kidneys; they are formed by union of the interlobular veins and the venulae rectae and drain into the interlobar veins
• venulae rectae renis / straight venules of kidney : venules that drain the papillary part of the kidney and empty into the arcuate veins.
• venae interlobulares renis / interlobular veins of kidney : veins that collect blood from the capillary network of the cortex and empty into the venous arcades of the kidney.
• venae stellatae renis / stellate veins of kidney / Verheyen's stars or stellulae : veins on the surface of the kidney that collect blood from the superficial parts of the cortex and empty into the interlobular veins
• vena suprarenalis dextra / right suprarenal vein / vena adrenalis dextra : a vein that drains the right suprarenal gland into the inferior vena cava
• vena suprarenalis sinistra / left suprarenal vein : the vein that returns blood from the left suprarenal gland to the left renal vein
• vena centralis glandulae suprarenalis / central vein of suprarenal gland : the large single vein into which the various veins within the substance of the gland empty, and which continues at the hilum as the suprarenal vein
• venae phrenicae inferiores / inferior phrenic veins : veins that follow the homonymous arteries, the one on the right entering the inferior vena cava, and the one on the left entering the left suprarenal or renal vein or the inferior vena cava
• gonadal vein (r & l)
• vena ovarica dextra / right ovarian vein : a vein that drains the pampiniform plexus of the broad ligament on the right into the inferior vena cava
• vena ovarica sinistra / left ovarian vein : a vein that drains the pampiniform plexus of the broad ligament on the left into the left renal vein
• spermatic vein : either of the testicular veins
• vena testicularis dextra / right testicular vein : a vein that drains the right pampiniform plexus into the inferior vena cava
• vena testicularis sinistra / left testicular vein : a vein that drains the left pampiniform plexus into the left renal vein
• plexus pampiniformis / pampiniform plexus : in the male, a plexus of veins from the testicle and the epididymis, constituting part of the spermatic cord; in the female, a plexus of ovarian veins in the broad ligament
• venae lumbales / lumbar veins (r&l) : the veins, 4 or 5 on each side, that accompany the corresponding lumbar arteries and drain the posterior wall of the abdomen, vertebral canal, spinal cord, and meninges; the first four usually end in the inferior vena cava, although the first may end in the ascending lumbar vein; the fifth is a tributary of the iliolumbar or of the common iliac vein; and all are generally united by the ascending iliac vein
• vena lumbalis ascendens / ascending lumbar vein : an ascending intercepting vein for the lumbar veins of either side; it begins in the lateral sacral veins and passes up the spine to the first lumbar vertebra, where by union with the subcostal vein it becomes on the right side the azygos vein, and on the left side, the hemiazygos vein.
• venae subcutaneae abdominis / subcutaneous veins of abdomen : the superficial veins of the abdominal wall.
• venae membri inferioris / veins of lower limb : veins that drain the thigh, leg, and foot, divided into superficial veins (those in the superficial fascia) and deep veins (those that accompany arteries)
• venae profundae membri inferioris / deep veins of lower limb : veins that drain the lower limb, found accompanying homonymous arteries, and anastomosing freely with the superficial veins; the principal deep veins are the femoral and popliteal veins
• venae superficiales membri inferioris / superficial veins of lower limb : veins that drain the lower limb, found immediately beneath the skin, and anastomosing freely with the deep veins; the principal superficial veins are the great and small saphenous veins
• vena iliaca communis / common iliac vein (r&l) : a vein that arises at the sacroiliac articulation by union of the external iliac and the internal iliac veins, and passes upward to the right side of the fifth lumbar vertebra where the two unite to form the inferior vena cava
• vena iliolumbalis / iliolumbar vein : a vein that follows the distribution of the iliolumbar artery and opens into the internal iliac or the common iliac vein, or it may divide to end in both
• vena sacralis mediana / median sacral vein / vena sacralis media and middle sacral vein : a vein that follows the middle sacral artery and opens into the common iliac vein
• plexus venosus sacralis / sacral venous plexus : the plexus on the pelvic surface of the sacrum that receives the sacral intervertebral veins, anastomoses with neighboring lumbar and pelvic veins, and drains into the middle and lateral sacral veins
• vena iliaca externa / external iliac vein : the continuation of the femoral vein from the inguinal ligament to the sacroiliac articulation, where it joins with the internal iliac vein to form the common iliac vein.
• vena circumflexa ilium profunda / deep circumflex iliac vein / vena circumflexa iliaca profunda : a common trunk formed from the venae comitantes of the homonymous artery and emptying into the external iliac vein
• vena epigastrica inferior / inferior epigastric vein : a vein that accompanies the inferior epigastric artery and opens into the external iliac vein
• Burow's vein : an inconstant vessel formed by the two inferior epigastric veins and a branch from the bladder; it joins the portal vein.
• vena iliaca interna / internal iliac vein : a short trunk formed by union of parietal branches; it extends from the greater sciatic notch to the brim of the pelvis, where it joins the external iliac vein to form the common iliac vein.
• venae uterinae / uterine veins : veins that drain the uterine plexus into the internal iliac veins.
• plexus venosus uterinus / uterine venous plexus : the venous plexus around the uterus, draining into the internal iliac veins by way of the uterine veins
• venae vesicales / vesical veins : veins passing from the vesical plexus to the internal iliac vein.
• venae gluteae superiores / superior gluteal veins : venae comitantes of the superior gluteal artery; they drain the muscles of the buttock, pass through the greater sciatic foramen, and empty into the internal iliac vein
• venae sacrales laterales / lateral sacral veins : veins that follow the homonymous arteries, help to form the lateral sacral plexus, and empty into the internal iliac vein or the superior gluteal veins.
• venae obturatoriae / obturator veins : veins that drain the hip joint and the regional muscles, enter the pelvis through the obturator canal, and empty into the internal iliac or the inferior epigastric vein, or both.
• vena pudenda interna / internal pudendal vein : a vein that follows the course of the internal pudendal artery, and drains into the internal iliac vein.
• vena bulbi penis / vein of bulb of penis : a vein draining blood from the bulb of the penis into the internal pudendal vein
• plexus venosus vaginalis / vaginal venous plexus : a venous plexus in the walls of the vagina, which drains into the internal iliac veins by way of the internal pudendal veins.
• vena bulbi vestibuli / vein of bulb of vestibule : a vein draining blood from the bulb of the vestibule of the vagina into the internal pudendal vein
• plexus venosus vesicalis / vesical venous plexus : a venous plexus surrounding the upper part of the urethra and the neck of the bladder, communicating with the vaginal plexus in the female and with the prostatic plexus in the male (prostaticovesical or vesicoprostatic plexus : the plexus venosus vesicalis in the male)
• vena dorsalis profunda clitoridis / vena dorsalis clitoridis profunda / deep dorsal vein of clitoris : a vein that follows the course of its homonymous artery and opens into the vesical plexus
• venae profundae clitoridis / deep veins of clitoris : small veins of the clitoris that drain into the vesical venous plexus.
• plexus venosus prostaticus / prostatic venous plexus / plexus pudendalis : a venous plexus around the prostate gland, receiving the deep dorsal vein of the penis and draining through the vesical plexus and the prostatic veins
• vena dorsalis profunda penis / deep dorsal vein of penis / vena dorsalis penis profunda : a vein lying subfascially in the midline of the penis between the dorsal arteries; it begins in small veins around the corona glandis, is joined by the deep veins of the penis as it passes proximally, and passes between the arcuate pubic and transverse perineal ligaments where it divides into a left and right vein to join the prostatic plexus
• Kohlrausch veins : superficial veins passing from the under surface of the penis to the dorsal vein
• venae profundae penis / deep veins of penis : veins that follow the distribution of the homonymous artery and empty into the dorsal vein of the penis
• venae cavernosae penis / cavernous veins of penis : veins that return the blood from the corpora cavernosa to the deep veins and the dorsal vein of the penis
• venae gluteae inferiores / inferior gluteal veins : venae comitantes of the inferior gluteal artery; they drain the subcutaneous tissue of the back of the thigh and the muscles of the buttock, unite into a single vein after passing through the greater sciatic foramen, and empty into the internal iliac vein
• venae labiales posteriores / posterior labial veins : small branches from the labia which open into the vesical venous plexus; they are homologues of the posterior scrotal veins in the male
• venae scrotales posteriores / posterior scrotal veins : small branches from the scrotum that open into the vesical venous plexus
• venae rectales inferiores / inferior rectal veins : veins that drain the rectal plexus into the internal pudendal vein.
• vena femoralis / femoral vein : a vein that lies in the proximal two-thirds of the thigh; it is a direct continuation of the popliteal vein, follows the course of the femoral artery, and at the inguinal ligament becomes the external iliac vein. NOTE: Vascular surgeons refer to the portion of the femoral vein proximal to the branching of the deep femoral vein as the common femoral vein, and to its continuation distal to the branching as the superficial femoral vein.
• vena femoropoplitea / femoropopliteal vein : an inconstant superficial descending vein draining the lower and back part of the thigh and opening into the small saphenous vein just before it perforates the deep fascia
• femoral valve : one of the valves of the femoral vein; there are usually 4-5
• vena epigastrica superficialis / superficial epigastric vein : a vein that follows its homonymous artery and opens into the great saphenous or the femoral vein.
• venae thoracoepigastricae / thoracoepigastric veins : long, longitudinal, superficial veins in the anterolateral subcutaneous tissue of the torso, which empty superiorly into the lateral thoracic and inferiorly into the femoral vein
• vena profunda femoris / deep femoral vein : a vein that follows the distribution of the deep femoral artery and opens into the femoral vein.
• venae circumflexae femoris laterales / lateral circumflex femoral veins / venae circumflexae laterales femoris : venae comitantes of the lateral circumflex femoral artery, emptying into the femoral or the deep femoral vein
• venae circumflexae femoris mediales / medial circumflex femoral veins / venae circumflexae mediales femoris : venae comitantes of the medial circumflex femoral artery, emptying into the femoral or the deep femoral vein
• venae perforantes / perforating veins / communicating veins : veins that accompany the perforating arteries and connect superficial and deep veins, establishing an anastomosis between the deep femoral vein and the popliteal vein below and the inferior gluteal vein above
• vena saphena magna / great saphenous vein : the longest vein in the body, extending from the dorsum of the foot to just below the inguinal ligament, where it opens into the femoral vein.
• perforating veins : an inconstant group of veins seen as tributaries of the great saphenous vein, anastomosing between it and other veins of the lower leg
• vena saphena accessoria / accessory saphenous vein : a vein that, when present, drains the medial and posterior superficial parts of the thigh and opens into the great saphenous vein
• venae pudendae externae / external pudendal veins : veins that follow the distribution of the external pudendal artery and open into the great saphenous vein.
• venae dorsales superficiales clitoridis / superficial dorsal veins of clitoris / venae dorsales clitoridis superficiales : veins that collect blood subcutaneously from the clitoris and drain into the external pudendal vein
• venae dorsales superficiales penis / superficial dorsal veins of penis / venae dorsales penis superficiales : veins that collect blood subcutaneously from the penis and drain into the external pudendal vein
• venae labiales anteriores / anterior labial veins : veins that collect blood from the anterior aspect of the labia and drain into the external pudendal vein; they are homologues of the anterior scrotal veins in the male
• venae scrotales anteriores / anterior scrotal veins : veins that collect blood from the anterior aspect of the scrotum and drain into the external pudendal vein.
• vena circumflexa ilium superficialis / superficial circumflex iliac vein / vena circumflexa iliaca superficialis : a vein that follows the homonymous artery and empties into the great saphenous vein
• vena marginalis lateralis / lateral marginal vein : a vein running along the lateral side of the foot, returning blood from the dorsal venous arch, dorsal venous network, and superficial veins of the sole and draining into the small saphenous vein
• vena marginalis medialis / medial marginal vein : a vein running along the medial side of the dorsum of the foot, returning blood from the dorsal venous arch, the dorsal venous network, and superficial veins of the sole and draining into the great saphenous vein
• vena poplitea / popliteal vein : a vein following the popliteal artery, and formed by union of the venae comitantes of the anterior and posterior tibial arteries; at the adductor hiatus it becomes continuous with the femoral vein
• venae surales / sural veins : veins that ascend with the sural arteries and drain blood from the calf into the popliteal vein
• venae geniculares / venae genus / genicular veins : veins accompanying the genicular arteries and draining into the popliteal vein
• vena saphena parva / small saphenous vein : the vein that continues the marginal vein from behind the malleolus and passes up the back of the leg to the knee joint, where it opens into the popliteal vein.
• venae tibiales anteriores / anterior tibial veins : venae comitantes of the anterior tibial artery, which unite with the posterior tibial veins to form the popliteal vein
• venae tibiales posteriores / posterior tibial veins : venae comitantes of the posterior tibial artery, which unite with the anterior tibial veins to form the popliteal vein.
• venae fibulares / fibular veins / venae peroneae / peroneal veins : the venae comitantes of the fibular artery, emptying into the posterior tibial vein
• venae digitales communes pedis / common digital veins of foot : short veins formed by union of the dorsal digital and the intercapitular veins of the foot
• venae digitales dorsales pedis / dorsal digital veins of foot / venae digitales pedis dorsales : the veins on the dorsal surfaces of the toes that unite in pairs around each cleft to form the dorsal metatarsal veins
• venae digitales palmares / palmar digital veins : the venae comitantes of the proper and common palmar digital arteries, which join the superficial palmar venous arch
• venae digitales plantares / plantar digital veins : veins from the plantar surfaces of the toes which unite at the clefts to form the plantar metatarsal veins of the foot.
• venae intercapitulares pedis / intercapitular veins of foot : veins at the clefts of the toes which pass between the heads of the metatarsal bones and establish communication between the dorsal and the plantar venous system.
• driving forces
• driving forces for arterial blood : cardiac systole
• driving forces for venous blood :
• centrifugal forces
• gravity
• abdominal pressure (increased during constipation)
• extrinsic pressure
• vein elasticity and distensibility
• centripetal forces
• distal forces
• vis a tergo
• cardiac systole
• aorta sphygmic wave
• pressure over Lejar plantar arc
• accelerating forces
• muscle or venous pump : compression of veins by the contraction of skeletal muscles, forcing blood towards the heart against the flow of gravity; seen particularly in the deep veins of the lower limbs
• vein tone
• pulsatility of satellite arteries
• aspirating forces
• vis a fronte (diastolic axpiration from right atrium)
• vascular resistances (VR)
• systemic vascular resistance (SVR) / afterload = 80 ^. (MAP - CVP) / CO = 742-1378 dynes ^. s / cm⁵
• peripheral or systemic vascular resistance index (SVRI) = 80 ^. (MAP - CVP) / CI = 1337-2483 dynes ^. s / cm⁵
• peripheral resistance unit (PRU) / Wood's unit : a conventional unit of vascular resistance equal to the resistance that produces a pressure difference of 1 mm Hg, corresponding to a blood flow of 1 mL/sec.
Most of the SVR is located in arterioles (where SVRs are in series rather in parallel as in capillaries).
• vasomotor apparatus : the neuromuscular mechanism controlling the constriction and dilation of blood vessels and thus the amount of blood supplied to a part. Coronary arteries have both a- and b-ARs
• Hagen-Poiseuille law : voluminal laminar stationary flow ?V of incompressible uniform viscous liquid (so called Newtonian fluid) through a cylindrical tube with the constant circular cross-section

(f_v) = dV/dt = v_spr² = pr⁴/(8h) x (-dp*/dz) =  Dp*pr⁴/(8hl)
... where V is a volume of the liquid, poured in the time unit t, v_s median fluid velocity along the axial cylindrical coordinate z, r internal radius of the tube, Dp* the pressure drop at the two ends, h dynamic fluid viscosity and l characteristic length along z, a linear dimension in a cross-section (in non-cylindrical tube). Assuming R = 8hl/pr⁴, one can parallel Hagen-Poiseuille equation with Ohm's law (I = DV/R), considering the flow as the electric current (I) and the Dp* as the drop in voltage (DV).
The law can be derived from the Darcy-Weisbach equation, developed in the field of hydraulics and which is otherwise valid for all types of flow, and also expressed in the form:
L = 64/Re, Re = 2rv_sr/h
where Re is the Reynolds number and r fluid density. In this form the law approximates the Darcy friction factor, the energy (head) loss factor, friction loss factor or Darcy (friction) factor L in the laminar flow at very low velocities in cylindrical tube
• blood pressures (BP)
• arterial blood pressure (ABP)
• systolic blood pressure (SBP) < 120 mmHg. It decreases with age, plateaus at around age 55 and then increases with age
• diastolic blood pressure (DBP) < 80 mmHg. It increases with age, plateaus at around age 55 and then decreases with age
• pulsation pressure (PP) = SBP - DBP. It decreased with age, plateaus at around age 55, and increases with age. It inversely relates to compliance, while it is directly related to ventricular septal hypertrophy, carotid intimal media thickness, and cardiovascular events. Anyway it has a low predictive value for stroke and ischemic heart disease, so that it is not clear if it represents the pathogenesis or rather just a marker of hypertension. It is decreased in aortic valve stenosis and increased in arteriosclerosis
• mean arterial pressure (MAP) = DBP + (SBP - DBP) / 3 =  84-100 mmHg
• if SBP and DBP values manually entered, MAP = (SBP – DBP)^KP + DBP, where KP is a variable which is dependant on pulse pressure ratio, usually varying between 0.25-0.33
• if automatic BP (oscillometric method) is used, MAP is measured directly and SBP and DBP are derived.
• Bayliss effect : increased perfusion pressure and subsequent stretch of vascular smooth muscle causes muscle contraction and increased resistance, which returns blood flow to normal in spite of the elevated perfusion pressure.
• blood volumes

vascular district		volume [mL]	%
heart (diastole)		360	7.2
pulmonary circulation	pulmonary artery	130	2.6
	pulmonary capilary	110	2.2
	pulmonary vein	200	4
systemic circulation	aorta	300 (luminal diameter = 2.0 cm ; length = 25 cm)	6
	small artery	400 (compliance : 1 mL / mmHg)	8
	capillary	300	6
	veins	2300 (compliance : 20 mL / mmHg)	46
	large veins	900	18
Total		5,000

• arterial stiffness is a strong predictor of cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk^{ref1, ref2, ref3}. Arterial stiffness increases with aging, but premature arterial stiffening occurs in subjects at high risk of CVD, including patients with hypertension, end-stage renal disease, coronary heart disease, and diabetes mellitus^{ref1, ref2, ref3}. Large artery stiffening involves structural changes, including fragmentation and degeneration of elastin, increases in collagen, and thickening of the vessel wall, but recent studies also suggest that endothelial dysfunction may play a pathophysiological role^ref. Arterial stiffening seems to predispose for atherosclerotic plaque formation^ref. Components of the metabolic syndrome, such as visceral obesity, insulin resistance, hyperglycemia, hypertriglyceridemia, and hypertension may promote arterial stiffening^{ref1, ref2, ref3}. Insulin resistance and visceral fat are associated with low-grade inflammation^{ref1, ref2, ref3}. Because atherogenesis involves low-grade inflammation, it is feasible that similar processes also affect vascular wall stiffening. Indeed, peripheral pulse pressure, a surrogate measure of large artery stiffness, was linked to C-reactive protein (CRP) and IL-6 levels in healthy, middle-aged men^{ref1, ref2}. However, peripheral pulse pressure does not provide reliable information concerning local conditions throughout the arterial tree, which are known to be differentially affected by aging, metabolic abnormalities, and vasoactive drugs^{ref1, ref2, ref3}. Several cell types, including activated macrophages, lymphocytes, and smooth muscle cells, as well as adipose cells produce proinflammatory cytokines^{ref1, ref2}. Thus, the increased levels of circulating inflammatory markers, including IL-6 and TNF-a, as found in obese, insulin-resistant, and type 2diabetic individuals, may reflect inflammation of the arterial wall^{ref1, ref2}, but may also be derived from adipose tissue, in particular visceral fat^ref. Several studies described an association between visceral adiposity and arterial stiffness^{ref1, ref2}, but the mechanisms by which visceral fat may enhance arterial stiffening have not been clarified. Because visceral obesity is a hallmark of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes, we hypothesized that the association between arterial stiffness and visceral fat may be mediated by circulating inflammatory markers in patients with uncomplicated type 2 diabetes.
• the distensibility coefficient (DC = (d/D) / PP 10^-3/kPa)^ref is quantified as distensibility of the right common carotid artery. All measurements were performed by the same investigator, using a B-mode ultrasound imager with a 7.5-MHz linear array transducer (Aloka SD 1400, Aloka, Almere, The Netherlands). Subjects were examined in the supine position, with the head tilted slightly to the contralateral side.Athree-lead ECG was attached for R-wave triggering. Subsequently, the distal 10 mm of the right carotid artery were visualized, and when an optimal longitudinal ultrasound image was obtained, it was frozen on the R-wave of the ECG and stored on videotape for off-line analysis. In addition, from the same location, continuous B-mode images were recorded for 30 sec
• there is an association between carotid artery stiffness and visceral fat area in patients with well-controlled, uncomplicated, type 2 diabetes. However, this relationship was strongly attenuated and disappeared when adjustments were made for circulating levels of IL-6 and CRP, both of which were within the normal range^ref.
• low birth weight (LBW) is associated with increased sympathetic activity, and this explains a large part of the association between birth weight and blood pressure. The association between birth weight and sympathetic activity depends on genetic factors^ref
• forearm blood flow (FBF) was measured in both forearms by strain-gauge plethysmography with a calibrated mercury-in-Silastic strain-gauge applied around both forearms and connected to a Microlab plethysmograph (Microlab, Padova).
• obesity is independently associated with endothelial dysfunction, in humans^{ref1, ref2, ref3}; moreover, the increase in forearm blood flow in response to acetylcholine (Ach) is inversely related to body mass index and waist to hip ratio (WHR)^{ref1, ref2}. The important link between central obesity and endothelial function is further supported by the concept that insulin sensitivity is partly determined by the ability of endothelium to produce nitric oxide (NO)^ref. Thus, the haemodynamic resistance of endothelium to insulin in terms of NO production would further aggravate the metabolic insulin resistance and in general the metabolic/haemodynamic coupling. However, studies have shown heterogeneous vascular relaxation in vessels of different sizes: small arteries contribute to vascular resistance and may exhibit different mechanisms of endotheliumdependent relaxation than large arteries^{ref1, ref2}: while NO-mediated relaxation is enhanced with increases in vessel size, endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor (EDHF) is a more prominent vasodilator in smaller vessels. Thus, in term of metabolic/ haemodynamic coupling, the NO-independent vasorelaxation appear more relevant than the NO-dependent one. In obese patients there is a blunted nitric oxide-independent relaxation determined by a decreased response of inwardly rectifying potassium channels^ref.
• The initial description in 1980 by Furchgott and Zawadzki1 of endothelium-derived vasodilator factor has stimulated more than 2 decades of intense

research to delineate the basic biology of the endothelium and its importance in the clinical setting.2 Endothelium-derived vasodilator factor has been identified as nitric oxide (NO).2 It is formed in endothelial cells from the amino acid L-arginine by endothelial isoform of NO synthase (eNOS), which is the product of the NOS3 gene.2,3 In addition to producing NO constitutively, the enzyme may be stimulated to increase NO synthesis by a variety of physiological agonists, shear stress, and pharmacological agents. Although discovered as a vasodilator, NO mediates many of the protective functions of the endothelium.4 It limits vascular recruitment of leukocytes by inhibiting the expression of proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and leukocyte adhesion molecules.2,4 It inhibits
vascular smooth muscle proliferation and platelet adhesion and aggregation.2,4 NO also inhibits the production of tissue factor, a molecule that plays a critical role in the propensity of disrupted atherosclerotic plaques to cause intravascular thrombosis.5 In the setting of risk factors and experimental atherosclerosis, loss of the biological activity of endothelium-derived NO is accompanied by other alterations in endothelial phenotype that further increase the propensity for vasoconstriction, thrombosis, inflammation, and cellular proliferation in the vascular wall.6 Thus, endothelial dysfunction has the potential to contribute to
key events in the course of human atherosclerosis. NO in Health and Atherosclerosis:
Relationship With Risk Factors and Hemodynamic Stress
The experimental observations of Furchgott and others have stimulated translational research to elucidate the importance of endothelium-dependent vasodilation in human coronary atherosclerosis. Accordingly, Ludmer and colleagues7 administered the endothelium-dependent dilator acetylcholine into
the coronary arteries of subjects undergoing cardiac catheterization. Acetylcholine induced dilation of normal epicardial coronary arteries but induced abnormal vasoconstriction, indicative of endothelial dysfunction, in patients with angiographic evidence of atherosclerosis. The concept of endothelial
vasodilator dysfunction in atherosclerotic human coronary arteries was reinforced by similar findings when other stimuli to NO release were tested, including flow-mediated dilation, sympathetic activation, serotonin, and adenosine diphosphate.4 The loss of endothelium-dependent dilation occurs in the earliest stages of atherosclerosis. In fact, it has been linked to each of the known atherogenic risk factors, including several forms of dyslipidemia, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, cigarette smoking, aging, menopause, family history of premature atherosclerosis, and hyperhomocysteinemia.8–10 The endothelium
is a direct, sensitive target for the damaging effects of atherogenic risk factors, as evidenced from the experimental introduction of risk factors into healthy subjects. For example, elevation of blood homocysteine by administration of its precursor methionine,11 generation of lipoprotein remnant particles by feeding a high-fat meal,12 or infusion of glucose to raise its plasma level to mimic hyperglycemia of diabetes mellitus13 leads to endothelial vasodilator dysfunction in a
span of just a few hours. Endothelial dysfunction is also perturbed by abnormal hemodynamic stresses. Bifurcations in human coronary arteries, sites of predilection toward atherosclerosis, show impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilation before atherosclerosis is detected.14 Although atherosclerotic stenoses in large arteries can restrict blood flow, second-to-second regulation of flow in response to metabolic and other stimuli is generally accomplished
in resistance arterioles. Although atherosclerosis is typically absent from these small vessels, atherogenic risk factors also impair endothelium-dependent vasodilation at these sites and thereby contribute to myocardial ischemia. 15–17 In addition, endothelial dysfunction has been detected in several peripheral vascular beds.18,19 This has led to the concept of generalized, “systemic” nature of endothelial dysfunction20 and has facilitated endothelial function testing
in readily accessible vascular beds.
Assessment of Endothelium-Dependent Vasodilator Function in Humans
As originally described by Ludmer and colleagues,7 endothelial function in human coronary arteries can be assessed by measuring the vasomotor responses of epicardial arteries by quantitative coronary angiography in response to graded concentrations of acetylcholine or other agonists. Endothelial function in coronary resistance vessel responses can be assessed at the same time by Doppler flow measurements.9,21 This method has been considered the “gold standard” against which other tests of endothelial function have been compared. It has been particularly useful for developing a framework that relates disturbed coronary pathophysiology to myocardial ischemia in patients with coronary artery disease.22 This invasive method is of necessity restricted to patients undergoing clinically indicated cardiac catheterization. Endothelial function of forearm resistance vessels can be assessed by measurement of forearm blood flow using straingauge plethysmography in conjunction with intra-arterial infusion of endothelium-dependent agonists and selective pharmacological probes.23 This approach has been used primarily in studies intended to elucidate the basic mechanisms that underlie endothelial dysfunction in humans. The
general applicability of this technique to broader populations is limited by the requirement for an intra-arterial catheter. Assessment of endothelium-dependent, flow-mediated dilation of the brachial artery using high-resolution ultrasound has provided an entirely noninvasive approach to evaluating endothelial function.19,24,25 This technique uses increased hemodynamic shear stress during reactive hyperemia as a stimulus for the release of NO. The ultrasound approach has permitted studies of endothelial function in populations of asymptomatic subjects in whom cardiac catheterization is not indicated. The same atherogenic risk factors that impair coronary endothelial function similarly affect endothelial function in brachial arteries.19 However, the concordance between coronary and brachial endothelial responses when both tests are performed in the same patients is only modest.18 Moreover, the magnitude of the flow-mediated dilation depends on the specific protocol used to elicit reactive hyperemia, which differs from center to center at the present time.25 Finally, the methodology is associated with a relatively poor signal-to-noise ratio, which reflects variability in brachial artery size and the current resolution of vascular ultrasound.25 Despite these limitations, the methodology has proven to be particularly valuable for comparing different populations of patients from single centers and for assessing responses to therapeutic interventions over time. Given the limitations of ultrasound-determined flow-mediated dilation, there is continuing interest in the development of better noninvasive approaches to test endothelial function. For example, emerging studies suggest that other noninvasive methods provide information about endothelium-dependent vasodilation, including fingertip pulse arterial tonometer26 and measures of arterial stiffness.27,28 Endothelial Function and Clinical Outcomes The postulated antiatherogenic role of NO has been supported by clinical studies. Higher rates of myocardial ischemia or infarction have been reported in humans with polymorphisms of eNOS that reduce the activity of the enzyme.29 Among human cardiac transplant recipients, coronary endothelial dysfunction after transplantation has been associated with accelerated coronary arteriosclerosis.30,31
Several studies have investigated whether endothelial function testing predicts clinical complications associated with atherosclerosis (Table 1). Using several different methods to test endothelial function in coronary and peripheral arteries, patients with endothelial dysfunction had a far greater incidence of adverse cardiovascular events in follow-up compared with patients with preserved endothelial function. This ability of endothelial function testing to predict events was
independent of other known risk factors. Although intriguing, these observations have definite limitations. They are largely a retrospective examination of clinical outcomes in patients enrolled in various research protocols in a few laboratories and hence may not be applicable to the population at large.
Moreover, as the number of events in each study is small, composite end points consisting of a hard and a soft end point typically have been used. Nonetheless, the totality and consistency of these studies suggest that assessment of endothelial function has the capacity to provide useful prognostic
information about future cardiovascular events. Therapeutic Interventions and Endothelial Function Because of the pivotal role that endothelial dysfunction plays in atherosclerosis and its complications, numerous strategies of reversing endothelial dysfunction have been investigated. 2,4 Short-term studies have shown that mechanistically diverse interventions improve endothelial function, including correction of lipid abnormalities, inhibition of angiotensinconverting enzyme or angiotensin II receptor, smoking cessation, exercise, and various dietary interventions. Interestingly, all of these interventions have also been shown to reduce cardiovascular events in clinical outcome studies. During drug development, clinical outcome trials typically require thousands of patients and many years to complete and are associated with prohibitive costs. Hence, surrogate end points such as endothelial function testing have had much appeal in helping to decide which drugs to include in large clinical trials. The observation that an intervention improves endothelial function in a group of patients suggests that the intervention will also reduce cardiovascular risk and holds the promise that endothelial function testing may differentiate responders to treatment from nonresponders. In support of such a role for endothelial function testing, Modena and colleagues32 observed that improvement in brachial artery flow-mediated dilation after initiation of antihypertensive therapy coincided with a reduction in cardiovascular risk compared with patients with persistent endothelial dysfunction. However, that study lacked a standardized intervention, and further studies will be required to confirm the utility of endothelial function testing for this purpose. Finally, endothelial function does not always correctly predict long-term outcome. For example, hormonal replacement
therapy in postmenopausal women is consistently associated with improved endothelial function in peripheral and coronary arteries,33 but primary and secondary prevention clinical trials have proven negative. Given the complex causal mechanisms of atherosclerosis and the diverse effects of potential interventions, it is likely that no single surrogate end point will be completely predictive of clinical outcome. Accordingly, drug development in the field of atherosclerosis will have to rely on a broad panel of surrogate end points that test the impact of therapy on each key aspect of this disease, including endothelial function, inflammation, thrombosis, and plaque regression. Endothelial Function Testing in the Coronary Risk
Assessment of Generally Healthy Subjects
Another area of great interest is the potential use of endothelial function to stratify risk in individual subjects. Traditional and newly recognized risk factors account for only a portion of estimated risk for cardiovascular events such as myocardial infarction or coronary heart disease death. It is likely that genetic factors and other unrecognized environmental factors also play a role. Because the endothelium may be a target that integrates the damaging effects of the traditional and unknown risk factors, it has been proposed as a potential “barometer” of atherosclerosis risk,34 and as such, studying endothelial function may guide risk assessment and therapy for individuals. C-reactive protein, a biomarker of inflammation, recently received a limited endorsement to serve in that
capacity.35 Routine use of a biomarker for screening has profound implications for healthcare benefits and costs. Accordingly, each potential biomarker must pass rigorous tests, such as those we propose in Table 2. Currently, invasive and noninvasive endothelial function testing may reasonably used to investigate mechanisms of vascular disease and gain insight into the potential utility of new therapies in studies involving groups of patients. However, endothelial function testing does not meet most of the criteria in Table 2 as a biomarker for use in individual patients, so much work remains. Fortunately, simpler methods for endothelial function testing are currently in development and may prove helpful in that regard.
TABLE 1. Clinical Studies Supporting the Prognostic Value of Endothelial Vasomotor Function Testing
Study Population Vascular Bed
Test of Endothelial
Function
No. of
Patients
Follow-Up,
mo Clinical Events
Al Suwaidi et al36 CAD Coronary resistance vessels Acetylcholine 157 28 MI, cardiovascular death, revascularization,
CHF
Schächinger et al37 CAD Epicardial coronary arteries Acetylcholine and
flow-mediated dilation
147 92 MI, cardiovascular death, revascularization,
unstable angina, ischemic stroke
Halcox et al38 CAD Epicardial coronary arteries and
resistance vessels
Acetylcholine 308 46 MI, cardiovascular death, unstable angina,
stroke
Perticone et al39 Hypertension Forearm resistance vessels Acetylcholine 225 32 Cardiac, cerebrovascular, peripheral vascular
Heitzer et al40 CAD Forearm resistance vessels Acetylcholine 281 54 MI, cardiovascular deaths, ischemic stroke,
revascularization
Neunteufl et al41 CAD Brachial arteries Flow-mediated dilation 73 60 MI, revascularization
Gokce et al42 PAD Brachial arteries Flow-mediated dilation 187 1 Cardiovascular death, MI, unstable angina,
stroke
Modena et al32 Hypertension,
postmenopausal
Brachial arteries Flow-mediated dilation 400 67 Cardiovascular events
Gokce et al43 PAD Brachial arteries Flow-mediated dilation 199 14 Cardiovascular death, MI, unstable angina,
stroke
Targonski et al44 Risk factors, but normal
coronary arteries
Coronary resistance vessels Acetylcholine 503 16 Cerebrovascular events
CAD indicates coronary artery disease; PAD, peripheral arterial disease; and MI, myocardial infarction.
Summary
Basic observations by Furchgott and others have stimulated widespread interest in investigations of endothelial function in humans. This “translational research” has come to fruition. Much progress has been made in elucidating the biological mechanisms of human endothelial dysfunction, its relationship to atherosclerosis, and its clinical manifestations. Evidence for the importance of endothelial function has been strengthened by studies that relate endothelial dysfunction to future clinical events. Endothelial function testing may provide a useful target in the discovery and development of new therapies for the pharmaceutical industry. Further research is needed to establish endothelial function testing in the risk stratification and decisions regarding treatment of generally healthy subjects^ref
• an insertion (I)/deletion (D) polymorphism in intron 16 of the ACE gene is associated with myocardial infarction in some populations^ref as well as type 2 diabetic patients^ref. Associations with ischemic heart disease^ref, coronary atherosclerosis, dilated cardiomyopathy^ref, coronary artery restenosis^ref, and cardiac hypertrophy^ref have also been reported . However, these studies yielded conflicting results: some found positive associations with ACE genotype, and others did not. There are 2 components of atherosclerosis: atherosis (morphologic wall thickening) and sclerosis (functional stiffening) of the arterial wall^ref. It has been established that the extent of carotid atherosclerosis (intima-media thickness [IMT]) is a marker for an early phase of the atherosclerotic process^ref. However, IMT only provides information about vessel wall anatomy. Other important aspects of atherosclerosis related to vessel function, such as wall composition or stiffness, can also be studied in diabetic subjects with other noninvasive techniques^ref. Several studies have indicated decreased distensibility of the large arteries of patients with diabetes^{ref1, ref2}. Distensibility of the large arterie s can be assessed by measuring the thoracicabdominal pulse-wave velocity, recorded as aortic pulse-wave velocity (a-PWV)^ref. One study demonstrated that carotid arterial stiffness was associated with morphologic changes^ref, whereas another suggested that it is relatively independent of IMT^ref. In animal studies, a direct relationship has been established between regression of atherosclerosis and an increase in arterial distensibility^ref.
• in elderlies aortic stiffness s positively associated with risk factors associated with the insulin resistance syndrome, increased common carotid intima–media thickness, heart rate, and decreased physical activity measured several years earlier^ref.
• in nondiabetic individuals, increased arterial stiffness is an important cause of cardiovascular disease, because arterial stiffness leads to increased systolic pressure and ventricular mass and to decreased diastolic coronary perfusion^ref. There is evidence that the metabolic alterations in DM-2 and IGM are

associated with increased arterial stiffness^{ref1, ref2}, but this has not been systematically investigated. Arterial stiffness is a general term that encompasses
properties such as distensibility, compliance, and elastic modulus^ref. Such properties are not uniform along the arterial tree, and there may be important differences between elastic and muscular arteries. Previous studies of the association between DM-2 and arterial stiffness have been relatively small^{ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9} and were limited to one type of artery^{ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6} or targeted selected populations^{ref1, ref12} whereas data on the association between arterial stiffness and IGM are scarce^{ref1, ref2, ref3}. DM-2 was associated with increased carotid, femoral, and brachial stiffness, whereas IGM was associated only with increased femoral and brachial stiffness. Carotid but not femoral or brachial stiffness increased from IGM to DM-2. The brachial artery followed a pattern similar to that of the femoral artery. Increases in stiffness indices were explained by decreases in distension, increases in pulse pressure, an increase in carotid intima-media thickness, and, for the femoral artery, a decrease in diameter. Hyperglycemia or hyperinsulinemia explained only 30% of the arterial changes associated with glucose tolerance. Adjustment for conventional cardiovascular risk factors did not affect these findings.IGM and DM-2 are associated with increased arterial stiffness. An important part of the increased stiffness occurs before the onset of DM-2 and is explained neither by conventional cardiovascular risk factors nor by hyperglycemia or hyperinsulinemia^ref.
• venous filling index : a measure of the rate of refilling of the veins, usually in the legs, expressed in milliliters per second; calculated by dividing 0.9 of the functional venous volume by the time needed to go from minimum volume (after patient has been supine with legs elevated) to 0.9 of the venous volume (with patient standing up)
• Bibliography
• Nature Insight Vascular Biology  in Nature Vol.407 14 September 2000

• differentiated cell types
• lymphatic endothelial cells (LEC) are lymphatic vessel endothelial HA receptor-1 (LYVE-1)⁺Flt-4 / VEGFR-3⁺prospero-related homeobox 1 (PROX1)⁺
• lymphangiogenesis : in 1902, F. Sabin proposed the most widely accepted theory about the origin of the lymphatic vasculature. This model proposed that isolated primitive lymph sacs bud from the endothelium of veins during early development; from these primary lymph sacs, the peripheral lymphatic system spreads by endothelial sprouting into tissues where local capillaries form. Functional inactivation of Prox1 in mice demonstrated that lymphangiogenesis requires the activity of this gene in a subpopulation of endothelial cells in embryonic veins. Prox1 promotes the development of the lymphatic vasculature by determining the final lymphatic fate of budding venous endothelial cells. Lymphatic vasculature development is initiated by the specific expression of Prox1 in a subpopulation of vascular endothelial cells that subsequently adopt a lymphatic vasculature phenotype. Haemotopoietic cells expressing SLP76 and Syk are responsible for sprouting of lymphatics from embryonic veins, a process supported by VEGF-C (not needed for cell commitment to the lymphatic endothelial lineage, but only for migration and eventual survival) and VEGF-D
• tumor lymphangiogenesis
• anatomy

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